THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
KAHLIL GIBRAN AND OTHER ARAB AMERICAN PROPHETS
By
SANA MCHAREK
A Thesis submitted to the
Department of Middle and Secondary School Education
In partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Degree Awarded
Spring Semester, 2006
ii
The members of the committee approve the thesis of Sana Mcharek defended on
March 3
rd
, 2006.
______________________________
Pamela Sissi Carroll
Professor Directing Thesis
______________________________
Susan Wood
Committee Member
_______________________________
Deborah Hasson
Committee Member
Approved:
_________________________________________________
Pamela Sissi Carroll, Chair, Department of Middle and Secondary Education
The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named
committee members.
iii
To my loving husband, Tarek, who broadened my horizons and supported me
throughout this task.
and
To our precious little daughter, Cyreen, who brightened our world.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My greatest thanks and sincerest appreciation go to Dr. Pamela Sissi
Carroll, chair of my committee. Her comments, advice, and kind assistance
enhanced this study. She gave me great freedom to pick my thesis topic and
supported me from the time my topic of interest was a mere idea.
I also wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Susan Wood, who
taught me a lot about teaching writing in secondary schools, and to Dr. Deborah
Hasson for their encouragement, for valuing my work, and for gladly serving on
my committee.
Many thanks and warm thoughts also go to everyone in my family,
particularly my parents, who provided me with love and encouragement from
overseas.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures .....................................................................................................vii
Abstract .............................................................................................................viii
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1
1. BIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................3
Gibran as Student ...................................................................................3
Gibran as Exile and Lover .......................................................................5
Gibran in New York: a Journey toward Greatness ..................................8
2. GIBRANâS LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS .....................................................15
Gibran the Romantic ...............................................................................15
The Lover of Nature ......................................................................16
The Poet-as-Prophet ....................................................................16
Gibran the Reformer of Arabic Literature ................................................18
Kahlil Gibran: Bridging East and West ....................................................22
3.
THE PROPHET
AND BEYOND .....................................................................25
The Prophet
............................................................................................25
The Broken Wings
...................................................................................29
A Tear and a Smile
.................................................................................33
4. AMEEN RIHANI AND MIKHAIL NAIMY .........................................................37
Ameen Rihani (1876-1940)
Contributions ................................................................................37
The Book of Khalid
.......................................................................42
Mikhail Naimy (1889-1988)
Contributions ................................................................................45
The Cuckoo Clock
........................................................................48
Memoirs of a Vagrant
Soul or The Pitted Face
.............................49
vi
CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................52
APPENDIX A .....................................................................................................54
APPENDIX B .....................................................................................................55
APPENDIX C .....................................................................................................59
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................61
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ................................................................................65
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. One of the last photographs of Gibran .................................................55
Figure 2. A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of the Pen League ....56
Figure 3. A portrait of Mary Haskell by Gibran ....................................................57
Figure 4. A portrait of Gibranâs mother, Kamila Rahma .....................................58
viii
ABSTRACT
This thesis is a study of a group of Lebanese writers who initiated the Arab
immigrant literary tradition in America in the early 20
th
Century and established
themselves as key figures in the history of modern Arabic literature. Kahlil
Gibran, Ameen Rihani, and Mikhail Naimy produced enduring works that were
dedicated to modernism and constituted a channel for new ideas, but remained
Arab in essence. Ameen Rihani came to be known as the father of Arab
American literature and also the father of Arabic prose poetry; Mikhail Naimyâs
name is associated with literary criticism that helped revive traditional Arabic
literature. As for Kahlil Gibran, his writings penetrate to our emotional and
spiritual awareness.
This study particularly focuses on Kahlil Gibran; the story of a visionary
youth who turned out to be the most famous Arab American ever and one of the
worldâs great writers, by virtue of the phenomenal success of his
The Prophet
.
The study highlights Gibranâs life, times, and contributions. It also draws
attention to his major Arabic writings along with his chef-dâoeuvre
The Prophet
.
Gibran is not, as many may think, a one-book legend. English-speaking readers
who have enjoyed
The Prophet
will also appreciate Gibranâs
A Tear and a Smile
,
The Broken
Wings
, and âThe Processionâ among others. These works show the
development of his thought and reflection through the years and present other
sides of him, including the poet-rebel and the sensitive Romantic fired by ideals.
1
INTRODUCTION
The current atmosphere in the United States of celebrating ethnic diversity
and cultural pluralism gave rise to a rich body of immigrant literatures, as
evidenced in the syllabi of classes on ethnic literature. The English Department
at Florida State University, for example, offers courses that cover various
approaches to the study of ethnic literature, including African-American and
Latino/a literature.
Among Americaâs multicultural voices, Arab American literature, which
goes back to the early years of the 20
th
Century, has been discovered. The
emigrant school of Arabic literature was led by writers from Lebanon and Syria
who sought to expand the cultural production of the early generation of Arab-
Americans and served as a bridge between East and West. The inner core of
early Arab-American literati was comprised of Christian elites like Kahlil Gibran
(1883-1931), Ameen Rihani (1876-1940), and Mikhail Naimy (1889-1988).
The three writers started their literary quest as pioneers of al-Nahda and
members of a literary society known as Al Rabita al Qalamiyah, or the New York
Pen Bond. This organization contributed widely to the Arabic literary
renaissance; its members even went further than their fellow writers in the Arab
world in reforming and revitalizing Arabic letters.
Gibran, Rihani, and Naimy became citizens of the US and wrote
both in Arabic and in English. As ambassadors of their homeland to the West,
they celebrated the glorious past of the Arab world but attacked what they
considered its backward present. In America, they were impressed with values
of freedom and democracy in addition to scientific progress, but rejected what
they saw as an excessive materialism at the expense of spirituality.
All three gave both America and the Arab world much to remember of
themselves. Gibran, however, had the advantage of receiving the most attention
and achieving the greatest fame of the three. He became well-known for his
2
paintings but far better for his writings, and many critics attribute his outstanding
profile to the fact that his effect has been significant in both East and West.
Gibran, indeed, became one of the United Statesâ most popular authors
and also one of the most successful Arab writers in the world. Yet, despite the
degree of self-confirmation and global reputation he reached, he is not yet part of
the American literary canon. Many biographical works have been published, but
Gibran has not been studied enough and most universities in America do not
teach him in their English Departments.
Among English-speaking readers, Gibran is often referred to as âthe
author of
The Prophet
â because this is his most famous work ever. Yet his
earlier writings are equally monumental. He produced powerful and profound
works in Arabic. This study will endeavor to explore that neglected side of
Gibran in order to add a dimension to the English-speaking readersâ knowledge
about Gibran the literary artist. Chapter One is an account of his life. Chapter
Two examines his literary attainments and contributions. Chapter Three focuses
on
The Prophet
and introduces Gibranâs major Arabic works. Chapter Four pays
homage to the two writers associated with Gibranâs image: Rihani and Naimy,
and places Gibran and his work within the broader context of the Arab-American
literary tradition.
3
CHAPTER 1
BIOGRAPHY
Kahlil Gibran was born to a Christian family in the village of Bsharri in the
North East of Beirut. After his father, an alcoholic tax collector, was disgraced in
1891 then stripped of all his property in 1894, the family immigrated to the United
States in June, 1895, and settled in a ghetto in the center of the Syrian district in
Boston. This was, at the time, the second largest Syrian community in the U.S.
after New York. The father had remained behind in Lebanon.
The family was comforted by the new, yet familiar environment where the
Arabic language was spoken and Arab customs were widespread. Gibranâs
mother Kamila (see Appendix B on page 57), a daughter of the village priest,
supported her four children in Boston as a seamstress. And although she was
not educated, she encouraged her sonâs artistic and literary talent he displayed
from an early age. She even told him that she envisioned him becoming a great
man one day (Waterfield, 1998, p. 27).
Gibranâs English readers have always known him by a modified form of his
real name.
His full name in Arabic was Gibran Khalil Gibran, the middle name
being, conventionally, his fatherâs. When Gibran started as a student in the
Quincy School in Boston in 1895, his English teacher suggested dropping his first
name and changing the spelling of âKhalilâ to âKahlilâ to suit the American
pronunciation.
Gibran as Student
Young Gibran was attached to his books and drawings. He succeeded at
school and won his teachersâ favor. According to Waterfield (1998), his art
teacher, Florence Pierce, recognized his burgeoning talents and had a hand in
his acquaintance with Fred Holland Day, a prominent figure of the Boston avant-
garde and a leader of a group of artists and poets known as the Visionists.
4
The 13-year-old Gibran frequently visited Dayâs studio as a model for
some of Dayâs portraits, and also as an apprentice. Day cultivated the young
immigrantâs artistic talents; he commented on his sketches, and encouraged the
spiritual tone of his drawings. Under Dayâs tutelage, Gibran came also to
develop his love of literature. In the beginning, Day used to read aloud to his
protégé, but as the latter became more fluent in English, Day lent him books to
take home (Waterfield, 1998, p. 38).
Gibran came to know the Romantic poets and philosophers, who later had
a considerable impact on his output. Gibranâs writings, indeed, adopted an
autobiographical tone and embraced such themes as the power of imagination,
the natural world, and freedom from norms and established rules (these
influences will be discussed more fully in Chapter Two).
As an artist, the young teenager was growing. He saw much potential in
himself and became attached to the attractive aesthetic world around Day. In
1898, Gibran attended an exhibition of Dayâs photographs, some of which
presented the 15-year-old as the model. The exhibition received positive
attitudes and allowed the young teenager to gain a foothold within the
atmosphere of Boston Society. Gibran was, for example, introduced to
Josephine Preston Peabody, a young poet and playwright who attracted him with
her beauty and cheerfulness, and later came to play a significant role in his life.
However, Gibranâs mother and half-brother Peter decided to send him
back to Lebanon to complete his education. They wanted him to absorb his own
heritage rather than the Western aesthetic culture he was attracted to, in addition
to the fact that his family put all hopes for a better life in him. So in August 1898,
Gibran left for Lebanon, but he did so after he had drawn Josephine Peabody
from what he remembered of her. He left the drawing for Day and asked him to
give it to her (Waterfield, 1998, p. 52).
In Beirut, Gibran joined the Maronite Catholic College (Madrasat-al-
Hikmah) from 1898 to 1901 or early 1902, where he cultivated his knowledge of
Arabic language and literature; he read classical Arabic literature as well as
modern Arabic Christian literature. He also became fluent in French.
5
Young Gibran was very successful. He was honored to win the âcollege
poet prize.â Also, with the help of other students, he produced a student
magazine called
Al-Manarah
(
The Beacon
) of which he was the editor, designer,
artist, and main contributor. However, his relationship with his father was
deteriorating, mainly because the latter discouraged the writer and the artist side
in his son.
Gibranâs relationship with Josephine Peabody, on the other hand, was fed
with an exchange of sweet letters. She thanked him for the drawing and praised
his talent. One of Josephineâs comments was: âYou have eyes to see and ears
to hear. After you have pointed out the beautiful inwardness of things, other
people less fortunate may be able to see, too and to be cheered by that visionâ
(J.P. Journal, December 12, 1898).
Gibran as Exile and Lover
There is evidence that Gibran started to see things with open eyes during
his student years. For example, he took a position against âenforcedâ man-made
laws; he had frequent arguments with school authorities, and as early as the age
of nineteen he was not only excommunicated from the Maronite church, but also
was sent to exile in France as a punishment for propagandizing his anti-
establishment ideas.
In Paris, Gibran learned of his sister Sultanaâs death in April 1902. Soon
after his return to America, family tragedies succeeded. In March his half-brother
Peter, who like Sultana had tuberculosis, died. Then in June of the same year
his beloved mother died of cancer. Gibran received a lot of sympathy from
Josephine, and their relationship became deeper and deeper. They exchanged
letters and he showed her his drawings.
The young man was so in love with Josephine, he considered her a
guiding light in his life as an artist. But this love was one-sided; Josephine saw
him rather as a friend or fellow artist. She continued to introduce him to
interesting people because she believed he was a genius, and even a prophet
6
(Waterfield, 1998, p. 18). But after Josephineâs marriage, the two were not close
friends anymore.
Gibran was still a protégé of Fred Holland Day. In 1904, he had his first
exhibition in his mentorâs studio, and it was very successful. His drawings, which
presented a transcendental metaphysical vision, made a profound impression on
influential members of Boston Society, and some of his pieces were sold.
During the exhibition, Gibran met Mary Haskell, a wealthy woman and the
principal of a private school in Boston (see Appendix B on page 56). She was
impressed by his talent and interested in his work. One of the questions she
asked Gibran was, âWhy do you draw the bodies always naked?â to which the
young artist replied, âBecause Life is naked. A nude body is the truest and the
noblest symbol of life. If I draw a mountain as a heap of human forms, or paint a
waterfall in the shape of tumbling human bodies, It is because I see in the
mountain a heap of living things, and in the waterfall a precipitate current of lifeâ
(Naimy, 1964, p. 59).
Mary invited Gibran to join her circle of artists and educated friends. She
soon became his confidante and was to follow him as his âguardian angel.â She
was so willing to cultivate his talents that she later paid for him to attend an art
school in Paris and fulfill his aspiration to be a symbolist painter.
Gibranâs stay in Paris was an important phase in his life, a phase of
growth and self-discovery. He read Balzac and Voltaire and became more
familiar with Rousseau and Tolstoy. Furthermore, he met prominent figures like
the French Romantic sculptor Auguste Rodin who announced the young artist
âthe Blake of the 20
th
centuryâ (Irwin, 1998, p. 1). He also became friend with
Ameen Rihani, a Lebanese writer and political thinker he admired.
Gibran started to contribute to
Al-Mohajer
(
The Immigrant
), a prominent
Arabic-language newspaper in New York. Its publisher, Ameen Goryeb, had met
Gibran and was impressed by his prose poems recorded on his notebook.
Gibranâs column had a popular appeal and was entitled âTears and Laughterâ,
the pieces of which later formed the basis of his book
A Tear and a Smile
(please
7
see Chapter Three, â
The Prophet
and Beyondâ on page 46, for more information
on this book).
Gibranâs relationship with Mary veered toward romance. His letters
became increasingly intimate and he gradually shifted from addressing a mentor
and a friend to expressing warm feelings. But upon his return to the States, they
both remained undecided about the direction of their relationship. Eventually
Mary confessed to Gibran her desire to keep him only as a friend and to bring his
potential as an artist and man of letters to its fullest. In his biography of Gibran,
Naimy writes: âWhat of Mary? She loves him dearly, values his talents,
understands his ambitions and aspirations and looks condolingly on his
weaknesses and sinsâ (Naimy, 1964, p. 99).
In Boston, Gibran made a living through his sketches, poems, and prose-
poems. He started to contribute to other Arabic newspapers like
Mirâat al-Gharb
(
the Mirror of the West
). In 1905,
Al-Mohajer
published his first Arabic book
entitled
Nubdah fi Fan al-Musiqa
(
On Music, a Pamphlet
) which eulogizes music
and was probably inspired by Gibranâs visits to the opera.
Gibranâs writing, however, started to reflect a rebellious spirit against
human oppression and injustice.
Araâis al-Muruj
, published a year later and
translated as
Brides of the
Meadows
or
Spirit Brides
, but referred to by Gibran as
Nymphs of the Valley
, expresses the young writerâs anti-feudal and anti-clerical
convictions. The book is a collection of three allegories which take place in
Northern Lebanon.
Much in the same tone is
Al-Arwah al-Mutamarridah
(
Spirits Rebellious),
another collection of four short stories
published in 1908. The book criticizes the
power that both the church and the state display and was burned in public in
Beirut for its revolutionary ideas. âKahlil the Hereticâ is particularly defiant. As
the title of the story suggests, Kahlil is condemned by authority in the village for
questioning the monksâ wealth in relation to the poor peasants, and for
encouraging the latter to reject the authorityâs control over their lives.
Through his publications and the political awareness he developed during
his stay in Paris, Gibran became well-known within the American Syrian
8
community. He was invited by the Syrian Student Club to give a talk and he
joined Al-Halaqat al-Dhahabiyyah (the Golden Links Society), an international
Syrian organization with US branches, the purpose of which was the
improvement of the lives of Syrians around the world.
Gibran in New York: a Journey toward Greatness
Gibran moved to New York in 1912 with the encouragements of Mary and
his friend Ameen Rihani who had already moved there and for whom Gibran had
done the illustrations in his book
The Book of Khalid
. Gibran, too, was convinced
that a wider audience awaited him.
In New York Gibran cultivated his contacts and was introduced to dealers
of the galleries of art. He exchanged visits with Mary who remained his financial,
intellectual, and emotional support for the most part of his life. Mary, indeed, saw
Gibran as a higher person with prophetic qualities. In 1913, she encouraged him
to move to a bigger studio so he would be able to work more comfortably, and
she paid his rent.
The Broken
Wings
, which was published in Arabic in 1912 and dedicated
to Mary Haskell, increased Gibranâs fame in the Arab world. Then the Arabic
newspaper
Al-Funun
(
The
Arts
), created in 1913, furthered his literary career. Its
editor Nasib âArida, a close friend of Gibran, published his poems, prose-poems,
essays and parables including a collection entitled
A Tear and a Smile
which won
him a further public acceptance. Through
Al-Funun
, Gibran also met Mikhail
Naimy, another Lebanese immigrant writer who was to become his closest friend.
Gibran expanded his influential acquaintances of painters, poets, and
playwrights. He became a popular member of the Poetry Society where he
sought favorable reception of his English writing by English-speaking readers.
Gibran would read his parables that would become
The Madman
and
The
Forerunner
, and then later pieces that would make
The Prophet
.
Among other members of the Poetry Society was Corinne Roosevelt
Robinson, a sister of Theodore Roosevelt and an established poet. She, who
9
had described his read pieces from
The Madman
as âdestructive and diabolical
stuffâŠcontrary to all forms of morality and true beautyâ (
Chapel Hill Papers
,
March 14, 1915), became a fan of Gibran and an admirer of his writings.
Gibran also met the novelist and poet James Oppenheim who led him to
become a member of the advisory committee of
The Seven Arts
(1916). This
was a widely acclaimed literary journal which published Gibranâs work along with
other prominent writers like Sherwood Anderson, D. H. Lawrence, and Eugene
OâNeil. It was, therefore, a vehicle for Gibranâs success in the English-speaking
world, especially that he was the first immigrant to join its board.
Gibran was also developing as an artist. He started to work with wash
drawings but remained faithful to a symbolist style that focused on naked human
bodies delicately intertwined (and for which Gibran became famous, even though
his art has received much less attention than his literary work ).
Starting from1914 and with Maryâs help, he arranged exhibitions in New
York and Boston, and every time he was satisfied with the results. The painter
Albert Pinkham Ryder is said to have visited Gibranâs exhibition of December 14,
1914, and to have praised the young artistâs work saying: âYour pictures have
imagination, and imagination is artâ (
Chapel Hill Papers
, April 11, 1915).
Gibran continued to give talks to the Syrian audience in New York which
welcomed him as a writer and also as a spokesman for their causes, especially
Arab nationalism and Syriaâs independence from the Ottoman Empire. Gibran,
indeed, was an advocator of Syria relying on herself and her resources to solve
her own problems as well as unity among his people rather than sectarian
divisions.
After the outbreak of World War I, Gibranâs political activism increased.
He worked with the Syrian-Mount Lebanon Volunteer Committee, advising Syrian
residents in the United States on how to join the French army involved in the war,
and advocating Arab independence from the Ottoman Empire. This goal, Gibran
maintained, should be achieved through revolution rather than âpatienceâ which
he called âThe Oriental poisonâ (qtd. in Bushrui & Jenkins 1998, p. 134).
10
Gibran also conducted fund-raising activities after the war to help his
starving people in Lebanon in addition to writing political pieces. His two war
poems of 1916 reveal a bitter tone of an angry young man; âDead Are My
Peopleâ mourned his dying countrymen and âIn the Dark Nightâ appealed for help
from the West. His English book
The Madman
, published in 1918, included a
famous short prose-poem entitled âDefeat, My Defeatâ in which Gibran converts
his failure into a sharp sword:
âDefeat, my Defeat, my shining sword and shield.
In your eyes I have read
That to be enthroned is to be enslaved,
And to be understood is to be leveled down,
And to be grasped is but to reach oneâs fullness
And like a ripe fruit to fall and to be consumed.
Defeat, my defeat, my deathless courage,
You and I shall laugh together with the storm,
And together we shall dig graves
For all that die in us,
And we shall stand in the sun with a will,
And we shall be dangerousâ.
From 1915 onwards, Gibranâs writings started to reflect a more universal
and metaphysical discourse. Gibran, indeed, developed what Waterfield refers
to as an âevolutionary philosophyâ (Waterfield, 1998, p. 195). He started to
preach the role of poets and artists in developing human consciousness and
helping the human soul in its journey towards a higher order, a more divine
realm.
Gibran always thought of himself as a poet. He told Mary once: âBetter a
poor thought, musically said, than a good thought in bad formâ (M.H. Journal,
April
21, 1916). From the 1920s, he adopted the role of poet-as-prophet,
confirming Josephine and Maryâs thought of him as a messianic figure. Gibran
eventually became a mystical and isolated hermit; especially that he had already
called his studio in New York âThe Hermitageâ. In a sense he isolated himself
from society on the strength of his idealism.
His short story
Al-âAwasif
, published in 1920 and translated as
The
Tempests
or
The Storm
, celebrates withdrawing from society and civilization and
joining the natural world. The book criticizes humanity and advises it to seek
11
self-transcendence towards a divine stage. Likewise, his famous volume of
pictures entitled
Twenty Drawings
and which was published in 1919 reflects this
philosophy.
Gibran started to write in English, and Mary was his main consultant.
The
Madman: His Parables and Poems
(1918) was his first book originally published
in the English language. Writing in English definitely increased English-speaking
readersâ recognition of Gibranâs abilities as a writer, since now they started
reading his original work rather than a translated one.
Critics argue that
The Madman
represents a turning point in Gibranâs
career also in terms of the writing style; the sense of pessimism and irony in it
reflect Gibranâs own disenchantment following the war. The book embraces the
Sufi notion of the poet as an isolated figure whose madness is a sign of wisdom.
For Gibran, the madman in his book was â[his] only weapon in this strangely
armed worldâ (
Beloved Prophet
, 1972, p. 89).
The following year âAlâMawakibâ (âThe Processionâ) came out. It is a long
philosophical poem accompanied by eight drawings by Gibran. It rejects
civilization and suggests a simpler ârecipeâ for humanity to step into a better life.
The Forerunner:
His Parables and Poems
followed in 1920 and is a reminder of
the humanâs potential for progressing towards a greater self.
Gibranâs studio had become a meeting-place for leading Arab-American
intellectuals who were known as Al-Mahjar or âimmigrant writersâ like Naseeb
âArida, Mikhail Naimy, and âAbd al-Masih Haddad (see Appendix B on page 55).
In 1920, they formed a literary society called Al-Rabita al-Qalamiyya, translated
as the Pen Club or the Pen League and sometimes The Pen Bond, which
furthered their fame in the Arabic-speaking world. Gibran was elected President,
and Naimy a Secretary.
The members would meet to talk about common goals like Arab
nationalism and Renaissance of Arabic literature. Naimy talked about the first
meeting when âthe discussion arose as to what the Syrian writers in New York
could do to lift Arabic literature from the quagmire of stagnation and imitation,
12
and to infuse a new life into its veins so as to make of it an active force in the
building up of the Arab nationsâ (Naimy, 1850, p. 154).
Gibran worked hard to keep the Pen League group together, but he
started to be less openly involved in politics. Indeed, having told Mary âPerhaps
the best form of fighting is in painting pictures and writing poetryâ (M.H. Journal,
August 27, 1920), he wrote a famous prose-poem in 1920 entitled âYou have
your Lebanon and I have my Lebanonâ the publication of which was banned by
the Syrian government. In the poem Gibran contrasts the Lebanon he envisions,
of beautiful nature and peace between its people, with the current Lebanon of
political turmoil, the Lebanon he describes as the âchess gameâ between church
and state.
Gibran relied less and less on Mary as editor and financier, but they
stayed close friends even though their collaboration came to an end with the
publication of
The Prophet
in 1923. In the same year Gibran told Mary in one of
his letters: âI care about your happiness just as you care about mine. I could not
be at peace if you were notâ (K.G. to M.H., April 23, 1923).
It is worth mentioning at this point that Gibran was involved in a twenty-
year literary and love relationship with May Ziadeh, an established Lebanese
writer living in Egypt. The two, however, never met; their relationship was carried
on wholly by mail and Gibran wanted to keep it secret.
In the beginning, Gibran and Ziadeh addressed one another as literary
critics, seeking comments on each otherâs work. From 1919, their letters became
more intimate, more passionate. Ziadeh came to replace Maryâs role as
consultant, editor, and conversant. She became for Gibran a remote soul mate
and another guiding spirit in his life. He idealized her as a âspiritual being â
almost an angel rather than a human beingâ (Waterfield, 1998, p. 163-164).
Gibran started to contribute to a new magazine,
The Dial
,
which became
his main vehicle for reaching the Western audience after the demise of
The
Seven Arts
. Gibran was also still writing pieces for the Arabic newspapers and
maintained solid relationship with the Syrian community both in the United States
and abroad.
13
In 1923, Gibranâs most famous book
The Prophet
was published and
immediately received favorable reactions. Gibran knew it was his greatest
achievement and the most important book he ever wrote. He had kept the
manuscript for years before he had it published, seeking further moments of
inspiration. He planned it to be the first of a trilogy; the second book was to be
The
Garden of the Prophet
(edited and published in 1933 after Gibranâs death)
and the third,
The Death of the Prophet
, was left a fragment.
Barbara Young, a writer and a friend of Gibran, tells the story of her
gathering with friends one January 6
th
, Gibranâs birthday, in remembrance of him.
Each person was to tell his/her first encounter with
The Prophet
. Young writes:
There was a young Russian girl named Marya, who had been climbing in the
Rockies with a group of friends, other young people. She had gone aside from them a
little and sat down on a rock to rest, and beside her she saw a black book. She opened
it. There was no name, no mark in the book. It was The Prophet, which meant nothing
to her. Idly she turned the pages, then she began to read a little, then a little more.
âThenâ said Marya, telling us the story, âI rushed to my friends and shouted â I
shouted, âCome and see â what I have all my life been waiting for â I have found it â
Truth!â
Another young woman, a teacher in a private school, who is also a fine poet, had
a curious story.
The room in which she was teaching was a hall-was a short distance from the
outer door. One morning as she stood before her class the door of the room opened
and a man, a stranger, entered holding an open book in his hand.
Without preliminary he said, âI have something to read to you, something of most
vital importance,â and he read aloud, forthwith, the chapter on children from
The
Prophet
.
The young woman was so amazed at the proceeding, the swiftness and ardour
of the visitor, as well as the words that she heard coming from his lips, that she was
unable to utter a word. He closed the book and left the room. Thus had she come to
know of the little black book.â
(Young, 1945, p. 64-65).
Three years after
The Prophet
and at the height of Gibranâs success,
Sand and Foam
was published in English. It is a book of beautiful sayings (322
of them) accompanied by seven illustrations by Gibran.
Sand and Foam
was
followed a year later by another collection of aphorisms under the title of
Kalimat
Jibran
(translated as
Spiritual Sayings
).
At the time, Gibran started also to contribute articles and drawings to a
quarterly journal entitled
New Orient
and which had a universal appeal for East-
14
West understanding. The journal echoed Gibranâs message of peace and unity
in diversity, and gave him a more international exposure.
In 1928, the longest book Gibran ever wrote
Jesus, the Son of Man
was
published. It is widely acclaimed as his second most important book, after
The
Prophet
. It portrays the life of Jesus and its human rather than supernatural
aspect, and reflects Gibranâs inspiration by the teachings of the Christ. Then
The
Earth Gods
came out in 1931. It is a dialogue in free verse between three titans
on the human destiny. Gibran also wrote a play in English,
Lazarus and his
Beloved
and
The Blind
, but it was not published in his lifetime.
In the later years of his life, Gibran suffered from a fatal disease, cirrhosis
of the liver. He started to seek refuge in heavy drinking and solitude in his studio
(see Appendix B on page 54). The man strong in mind and spirit became
increasingly weak and knew that his abilities as a writer were fading away. In a
1930 letter to May Ziadeh he confessed: âI am a small volcano whose opening
has been closed. If I were able to write something great and beautiful, I would be
completely cured. If I could cry out, I would gain back my healthâ (
A Self-Portrait
,
1959, p. 91).
By 1931, Gibran spent most of his time in bed. According to Naimy,
Gibran refused an operation that might have saved his life (Naimy, 1964, p. 218).
He instead waited for death, and it came to him at the hospital, at 10.55 pm, on
April 10, 1931, at the age of 48. Among other people close to Gibran, his sister
Marianna and his best friend Naimy were by his side.
Gibran left behind a rich literary production and four hundred pieces he
drew and painted. He bequeathed a considerable amount of money to the
development of his homeland, Lebanon. His people mourned his death and
honored him with a heroâs funeral. The Lebanese minister of arts paid homage
to his body with a decoration of fine arts. Gibranâs body was buried in his
birthplace, Bsharri, and his belongings and books were later sent to the Gibran
museum in the Mar Sarkis monastery.
15
CHAPTER 2
GIBRANâS LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS
Gibran the Romantic
Kahlil Gibranâs unique poetic expression, characterized by beauty and
spirituality, became known as âGibranism.â His language touches the inner souls
of readers and his parables teach them spiritual lessons. His early short stories,
prose poems, and later collections of aphorisms made him widely acclaimed as
the greatest of Arab Romantics.
Mikhail Naimy recorded his fascination with his friend saying:
âWho shall inscribe the name of the present generation in the scrolls of Time,
who they are and where they are? I do not find them among the many
ânightingales of the Nile and the warblers of Syria and Lebanon,â but among
the few whose lips and hearts have been touched by a new fire. Of those
some are still within the womb of Creative Silence; some are breathing the air
we breathe, and treading the ground we tread. Of the latter --, nay, leading
latter --is the poet of Night and Solitude, the poet of Loneliness and
Melancholy, the poet of Longing and Spiritual Awakening, the poet of the sea
and the Tempest â Gibran Kahlil Gibran.â
(Naimy, 1950, p. 159-60)
Many critics think that Gibranâs poetic genius predominantly lies in the use
of metaphor. Gibran indeed creates beautiful images that are charged with
emotions and that expand the readerâs vision and imagination. He addressed
various subjects about life and humanity like love, beauty, truth, justice, good and
evil.
He, for example, described a kiss that is âa goblet filled by the gods from
the fountain of loveâ and talked about love as âa trembling happinessâ and poetry
as âa flash of lightning; it becomes mere composition when it is an arrangement
of wordsâ or as âa deal of joy and pain and wonder, with a dash of the dictionary.â
The Lover of Nature
16
As Gibranâs interest shifted to mysticism and primitivism, his writings
returned again and again to the beauty and purity of nature. He romanticized
nature and found in it an inspirational power for his poetry. He identifies the
divine essence with the natural world, a pantheism he had absorbed from his
readings under Fred Holland Dayâs tutelage.
Gibranâs writings establish a mystical union with nature, a relationship of
love and harmony. The natural beauty of Gibranâs home village Bisharri was a
strong source of inspiration and nurture to his imagination. His poetry is
nostalgic of the magnificent scenery of his childhood. It portrays Gibran rejoicing
in peace and freedom among the immortal cedars of Lebanon, the famous holy
valley of Qadisha, and the mountains of Sannin and Famm al-Mizab.
Yet, inspired by Rousseauâs ideas on the innocence of the natural man as
opposed to the man corrupted by civilization and materialism, Gibran repeatedly
points out to the contrast between the natural world and the human world. In the
former there is peace, harmony, and innocence whereas in the latter there is
chaos, injustice, and sorrow.
In a letter to Mikhail Naimy dated 1922, he writes: ââŠthe future shall find
us in a hermitage at the edge of one of the Lebanese gorges. This deceptive
civilization has strained the strings of our spirits to the breaking point. We must
depart before they breakâ (Naimy, 1964, p. 255).
The Poet-as-Prophet
According to Naimy, Gibran once said: âI shall be happy when men shall
say about me what they said of Blake: âhe is a madman.â Madness in art is
creation. Madness in poetry is wisdom. Madness in the search for God is the
highest form of worshipâ (Naimy, 1950, p. 89). Such is Gibranâs poetic
expression: a spiritual and prophetic one.
Gibranâs romantic philosophy was influenced by what Waterfield called
âthe Platonizing streamâ (Waterfield, 1998, p. 226). As we have already seen,
the autobiographical tone of his writings depicts him as a poet-prophet with a
sacred mission to humanity.
17
In one of his aphorisms in
Sand and Foam
Gibran compares himself to
Jesus saying: âCrucified One, you are crucified upon my heart; and the nails that
pierce your hands pierce the walls of my heart. And tomorrow when a stranger
passes by this Golgotha he will not know that two bled hereâ (p. 61-62).
Gibran often depicts himself as a lonely poet who is more sensitive than
other people and who is capable of revealing eternal truths. Again in
Sand and
Foam
he writes: âThere lies a green field between the scholar and the poet;
should the scholar cross it, he becomes a wise man; should the poet cross it, he
becomes a prophetâ (p. 64).
This more elevated role that Gibran started to play continued to live with
him. It, however, reached its profoundest expression through
The Prophet
in
which Almustafa seems to voice Gibranâs own spiritual teachings. Indeed when
in an interview Gibran was asked how he came to write
The Prophet,
he
answered: âDid I write it? It wrote meâ (Daoudi, 1982, p. 99).
Gibranâs writings are known for their prophetic tone against the evils that
reigned in his beloved homeland at the time and against other evils that bring
humanity to decadence. His message, however, is a healing one. He asserts
that this modern world, corrupted by conventions, oppression, and hatred is
redeemable through love, good will, and freedom.
Gibran embraced the American Transcendentalists like Whitman,
Emerson, and Thoreau. His work bears the influence of their ideas of self-
reliance, reincarnation, and the presence of a greater self that each individual is
able to grow into. For Gibran human beings are able to progress toward a divine
world. He repeatedly celebrates joining the metaphysical realm as the key to
better understand the world and discover higher meanings of life.
Together with Nietzsche, William Blakeâs works also contributed in
shaping Gibranâs religious ideas. From an early age, he started to question the
religion of his birth and the role of priests. He, however, never questioned the
existence of some kind of God and continued to be fascinated with Jesus
throughout his life.
18
Gibran, indeed, found in Christ a source of inspiration, an idea that was
recurrent in his earlier stories like âKhalil the Hereticâ and then later in his English
book
Jesus, the Son of Man
(1928). He considered Jesus a lasting leading
figure of humankind. He once wrote in a letter to Mary Haskell: âMy art can find
no better resting place than the personality of Jesus. His life is the symbol of
Humanity. He shall always be the supreme figure of all ages and in Him we shall
always find mystery, passion, love, imagination, tragedy, beauty, romance and
truthâ (K.G. to M.H., April 19, 1909).
Although there are critics such as Najjar (1999) and Hawi (1972) who
suggest that Gibranâs writing, which is characterized by a romantic mystical style,
had little influence on American letters, his impact particularly on Arab-American
literature is recognizable.
Gibran the Reformer of Arabic Literature
Kahlil Gibran was among a younger generation of Arab-American writers
who contributed to the ongoing Arabic literary renaissance. This movement had
started by the end of the 19
th
century with revivalist figures in the Arab world like
Butrus al-Bustami, Kahlil Mutran, and al-Aqqad, among others who were
attracted to Western poetry and particularly English Romanticism.
Living in the American environment undoubtedly helped Arab American
literati in their quest to revolutionize the classically conservative Arabic literature.
In a way, they reflected the culture of freedom they found themselves in. They
freely developed new styles whereas their counterpart modernizers in the East
had to moderate them. Arab-American modernists were highly influenced by
Western cultures in attempting to reform the traditional use of Arabic language
and applying new ideas to Arabic literature. They developed the prose-poem
and also introduced Western themes like romanticism, individualism, humanism,
and secularism.
It is interesting that Ameen Rihani was a pioneer of this revolution before
Gibran, but Al-Mahjar or Pen League writers turned to Gibranâs own ideas and
19
experimentation with language as a source of inspiration. His literary beliefs
shaped the views of colleagues. Indeed âAbd al-Masih Haddad, a member of the
Pen League, described Gibranâs input on the issue as âthe awakening of spring in
a barren landâ (Hawi, 1972, p. 113).
It is worth emphasizing at this point that before even the formation of The
Pen League,
al-Funun
(
the arts
) contributed widely to the Arabic literary
renaissance. Its main goal, indeed, was to lift Arabic literature from the
stagnation it fell into.
Al-Funun
became the main channel for Gibranâs Arabic
writings as well as the work of other Lebanese immigrant writers (Waterfield,
1998). The journal sought to promote new forms of literature for the Arabic-
speaking world. It spread a new orientation towards the renewal of the Arabic
language, and drew attention to what Arabic literature should be like, not what it
currently was like (Naimy, 1967, p. 112-13).
Gibran, as well as other members of the Pen Bond, did not promote a
radical linguistic reform of the Arabic literature or a destruction of the âsanctityâ of
formal Arabic. He rather advocated breaking out of traditional patterns in favor of
an individual style. As Popp puts it, â[it] was not to be equated with the felling of
a tree, but the pruning away of the treeâs dead branches and leavesâ (Popp,
2000, p. 132).
In a prose poem entitled âYou Have Your Language and I Have Mine,â a
response to the old school Arab criticsâ attack and what they labeled as
âexcessive sentimentalityâŠand weak styleâ (Badawi, 1975, p. 182-3), Gibran
writes:
âYou have of the Arabic language whatever you wish
And Iâll have what pleases my thought and emotions.
You have its words
And Iâll have its hidden powers
You have its preserved stiff corpse
And Iâll have its soul
You have its dried up rules of grammar
And Iâll make of it melodies that echo in the mind and
Overwhelming dashes of affection that calm the sensesâ.
(qtd. in Najjar, 1999, p. 93).
20
Gibranâs early works written in Arabic popularized the already burgeoning
Romantic tradition. They are considered crucial to the development of modern
Arabic literature as they paved the way to a new kind of creativity. Critics even
went further in drawing a similarity between Gibranâs impact on 20
th
Century Arab
Romantic writers and that of 19
th
Century Western Romantic figures on their
fellow writers.
Gibranâs Arabic pieces were part of a new literary culture that
experienced what Waterfield (1998) calls a shift from craftsmanship to
inspiration. Gibran indeed sought the beauty of thought more than the beauty of
form. He created new imagery and seemed to adopt a Blakean approach to
imagination as the âDivine Visionâ.
His writing did not match traditional forms of the past that the neoclassical
poets of the 19
th
and early 20
th
Centuries were faithful to. Gibran, for example,
rejected complex grammar, flamboyant rhetoric as well as meters of classical
Arabic poetry. In his Arabic poem
Al-Mawakib
(
The Procession
) for example,
Gibran promoted the idea of using more than one meter in a single poem. The
delicate tones of the lines, however, are deeply felt.
Gibran challenged what was considered to be criteria of great poetry. He
preferred a free and spontaneous verse, and blended classical Arabic with
colloquial Arabic. He embraced a simplified diction and a language that
unsophisticated audience could understand and relate to.
Yet, his simple style is elegant, resonant, and able to communicate
profound thoughts. It touches on aspects of our experience as humans. It
appeals to our hearts as well as to our minds. Gibranâs writings strikingly create
an element of timelessness and universality that penetrate even the translated
work.
In The
Broken Wings
, for example, Gibran talks about love as: âthe only
freedom in the world because it so elevates the spirit that the laws of humanity
and the phenomena of nature do not alter its courseâ (
The Broken Wings
, p. 35).
Also in
A Tear and a Smile
, Gibran describes the Poet as:
âA link
Between this world and the hereafter;
21
A pool of sweet water for the thirsty;
A tree planted
On the banks of the river of beauty,
Bearing ripe fruits for hungry hearts to seek.
An angel
Sent by the gods to teach man the ways of gods.
A shining light unconquered by the dark,
Unhidden by the bushel
Astarte did fill with oil;
And lighted by Apolloâ.
(From
A Tear and a Smile
, p. 134-135).
Gibranâs early publications are also characterized by bitter realism, and
unlike traditional Arabic writings, they dealt with challenging themes. For example
Arayis Al-Muruj
(
Nymphs of the Valley
), reflects Gibranâs anti-clerical ideas. One
of the issues âMarthaâ, âYuhanna the Madâ, and âDust of Ages and the Eternal
Fireâ dealt with was religious persecution.
For Gibran, true religion is not an organized but a liberating and personal
one. His poem âThe Crucifiedâ echoes his life-long belief that the mission of
Jesus was not to build institutions and structures, but to build the human spirit.
Gibran writes: âJesus was nor sent here to teach the people to build magnificent
churches and temples. He came to make the human heart a temple, and the
soul an altar, and the mind a priestâ (
Secrets of the Heart
, 1947, p. 215).
Nymphs of the Valley
, in addition, addresses social injustices in Lebanon
like the exploitation of women and the poor by the rich and the powerful.
Gibranâs early other Arabic writings also point out to the ignored rights of Arab
women and call for their emancipation and education.
Al-Arwah Al-Mutamarridah
(
Spirits Rebellious
), for example, portrays a married womanâs emancipation from
her husband and a brideâs escape from a forced marriage through death, themes
that had remained untouched in Arabic literature.
Gibranâs attempt at bridging the gap between Arabic and Western
literature in terms of both form and content presents him as a mediator between
both worlds. Gibran communicated a message of reconciliation between his own
heritage and the new environment he grew in. He imported Western themes and
22
infused an element of avant-garde experiment into Arabic literature, but he in
return had something to offer to the West.
Kahlil Gibran: Bridging East and West
Former US President Woodrow Wilson once told Gibran: âYou are the first
Eastern storm to sweep the country, and what a number of flowers it has
brought!â (qtd. in Daoudi, 1982, p. 11-12). Gibran, indeed, brought to his
adopted land flowers of Eastern spirituality which balanced Americaâs emerging
values of materialism and progress.
Inspired by his own experience as an immigrant writer, Gibran aimed at
uniting East and West and creating an intercultural reconciliation that transcends
the barriers of language, religion, and politics. Through his contributions to
magazines and journal,
The New Orient
in particular, Gibran advocated peace
and understanding between the Arab and Western world. Syrud Hussein, editor
of
The New Orient
, wrote about Gibran: âThere is no more sincere and authentic
or more highly gifted representative of the East functioning today in the West
than Kahlil Gibranâ (qtd. in Gibran & Gibran, 1981, p. 382).
Gibran considered himself as a spokesman of both cultures. He admired
Americaâs achievements and its values of individualism, dynamism, and freedom.
On the other hand, he praised the Arabsâ contributions to the world, but advised
them to evade the past and build oneâs own future, and to adapt the good
aspects of Western civilization instead of blind imitation. Gibran appealed to the
new generation of Arab Americans to be proud of both their Eastern and their
Western background. In his famous poem âI Believe in You,â also known as âTo
Young Americans of Syrian Origin,â 1927, Gibran writes:
âI believe that you have inherited from your forefathers an ancient dream, a song,
a prophecy, which you can proudly lay as a gift of gratitude upon the lap of America.
I believe you can say to the founders of this great nation, âHere I am, a youth, a
young tree from the hills of Lebanon, yet I am deeply rooted here, and I would be
fruitful.â
23
Barbara Young recorded Gibranâs impact on the Arab-American
community saying:
âTo the younger generation of his countrymen, those born in the West of
parents who had grown up on their native soil, Gibran was one of the elect of
God. They went to him in their perplexities, and he met their problems with quick
understanding and divine gentleness that won their undying gratitude and
devotion.â She added: âI have never entered one of these [Syrian] restaurants
without hearing some mention of him, without someone knowing, and saying,
âYou are the friend of Gibran?ââ (Young, 1945, p. 135, 139).
Waterfield, however, argues that the cultural dualism Gibran experienced
made him act out different roles among his Western friends of literary circles and
his Syrian compatriots. The first were often radicals and socialists, whereas the
latter were rather nationalists. He describes Gibran as a âchameleonâ who
adapts himself to the demands of both worlds (Waterfield, 1998, p. 149)
Nevertheless, it could be argued that Gibran balanced both the Eastern
and Western sides of his identity and came to resolve his cultural division.
Mostly in his early Arabic writings, such as
The Broken Wings
and
A Tear
and a
Smile
, Gibran perfectly blended his being an exotic Easterner with being a
wounded Romantic. But, broadly speaking, he harmoniously merged his mystic
beliefs in a sense of continuity among various faiths and in an inner, personal
experience of the divine with his Romantic ideals of universal love and unification
of the human race. As a firm believer in the âDivine Unityâ, his work addresses
the common and the universal.
This can be traced to the Poet-Prophet image that Gibran started to
evolve into in the 1920âs. For Waterfield this âRomantic fusion of poet and
prophet was undoubtedly Gibranâs best opportunity for bringing East and West
togetherâ (Waterfield, 1998, p. 238). This is because Gibran is known in the Arab
world mostly as a sensitive poet, whereas to his English speaking readers, he is
rather a wise philosopher, a prophet.
In his lifetime Gibran created his own spiritual philosophy that relates to
different faiths and religions. He called for cultural and religious tolerance and a
24
Christian-Muslim dialogue in particular. Bushrui points out that âGibranâs name,
perhaps more than that of any other modern writer, is synonymous with peace,
spiritual values and international understandingâ (Bushrui, 1996, p. 4).
Also Robert Hillyer, an American poet and critic who occasionally visited
Gibran in his studio recorded his memory of him as âa man who had devoted his
life to Contemplation, to Peace, to Love, to the Life of the Soul and the myriad
forms of Beautyâ (Hillyer, 1949, p. 7).
Gibranâs finest work,
The Prophet
, for example, is written in the language
of unity in diversity. It carries with it themes of unity of religions and oneness of
mankind. Almustafaâs message in the book, as Bushrui asserts, is âa passionate
belief in the healing power of universal love and the unity of beingâ (Bushrui,
1987, p. 68).
Many critics point to the autobiographical dimension of
The Prophet
. The
fact is there is evidence that Almustafa is a mouthpiece for Gibranâs own
teachings. According to Mary Haskellâs journal, Gibran said, while in the process
of writing the book, âIn
The Prophet
I have imprisoned certain ideals, and it is my
desire to live those idealsâŠJust writing them would seem to me falseâ (M.H.
Journal, May 12, 1922). This, however, does not seem to be a turning point in
Gibranâs life. As early as 1912, he had told Mary: âI have to live the absolute life,
must be what I believe in, practice what I preach, or what I practice and what I
preach are nothingâ (M.H. Journal, April 3, 1912).
25
CHAPTER 3
THE PROPHET
AND BEYOND
The Prophet
The Prophet
is Gibranâs literary and artistic masterpiece. It remained
during the 20
th
Century Americaâs best selling book, after
The Bible
. As of 1998,
it has sold 9,000,000 copies in North America alone (Waterfield, 1998, p. 257). It
has been translated into at least twenty languages and has become one of the
greatest classics of our time. The book is said to be a testimony to the genius of
Gibran.
Before
The Prophet
was born, Gibran told Mary Haskell of his aspirations
to satisfy the spiritual hunger of the world: âThe world is hungry, Mary, and I have
seen and heard the hunger of the world; and if this thing is bread it will find a
place in the heart of the world, and if it is not bread it will at least make the
hunger of the world deeper and higherâ (
Beloved Prophet
, 1972, p. 264).
Although there are critics like Najjar who argue that Gibranâs idealistic
symbolic message of balancing Eastern spirituality and Western material
progress did not relieve human suffering around the world (Najjar, 1999, p. 156),
readers have found themselves returning to
the Prophet
âs pages to reabsorb its
wisdom. Its beloved poetry is commonly read at weddings, baptisms, and
funerals throughout the world. The
Chicago Evening Post Literary Review
said of
The Prophet
:
âTruth is here: truth expressed with all the music and beauty and
idealism of a SyrianâŠThe words of Gibran bring to oneâs ears the
majestic rhythm of EcclesiastesâŠFor Kahlil Gibran has not feared to be
an idealist in an age of cynics. Nor to be concerned with simple truth
where others devote themselves to mountebank clevernessâŠThe twenty-
eight chapters in the book form a little bible, to be read and loved by
those at all ready for truthâ
(qtd in Young, 1945, p. 61).
The book presents Gibran as a writer of prophetic vision who shares his
spiritual sensitivities with his readers. It portrays the journey of a banished man
26
called Almustafa, which in the Arabic language means the chosen one. As he
prepares to go back to âthe isle of his birth,â he wishes to offer the Orphalese, the
people among whom he has been placed, gifts but possesses nothing. The
people gather around him, and Almitra, the seeress, asks him to âgive us of your
truthâ and the manâs spiritual insights in twenty-six poetic sermons are his gift.
As a wise sage and man of great vision, Almustafa teaches moral values,
the mysteries of life, and timeless wisdom about the human experience:
marriage, children, friendship, pleasure, death âŠHe, for example, calls for
balancing heart and mind, passion and reason, and for giving without recognition
because the giverâs joy is his reward.
Almustafa describes the yearning of the soul for spiritual regeneration and
self-fulfillment. He teaches that manâs purpose in life is a mystic quest towards a
Greater Self, towards Godhood and the infinite. He talks about âyour larger
selvesâ (p. 91) and pictures âtogether stretch[ing] our hands unto the giverâ.
Then at the end of the book Almustafa closes his farewell address saying:
âA little while, a moment of rest upon the wind, and another woman shall bear
meâ (p. 96). This image reflects a romantic vision of eternal rebirth,
reincarnation, and continuity of life. It evokes the Unity of Being which Gibran
believes in rather than fragmentation. Almustafaâs soul, hence, will return again
to its mystical path towards a greater soul.
The Prophetâs words are lucid and beautiful, powerful and inspiring in such
aphorisms as âWork is love made visible,â âYour pain is the breaking of the shell
that encloses your understanding,â âThe soul unfolds itself, like a lotus of
countless petals,â and âThought is a bird of space, that in a cage of words may
indeed unfold its wings but cannot flyâ (pp. 28, 52, 55, and 60 respectively).
Bushrui remarked that the secret of the bookâs success is âGibranâs
remarkable ability to convey profound truths in simple yet incomparably elegant
languageâ (Bushrui, 1996, p. 4). Yet, this is no surprise; simplicity and delicacy
of language are distinguishing aspects of Gibranâs writings. In his sermon on Joy
and Sorrow Almustafa says:
âWhen you are joyous, look deep into your heart and you shall find it is only that
which has given you sorrow that is giving you joy.
27
When you are sorrowful look again in your heart, and you shall see that in truth
you are weeping for that which has been your delight.â
(p. 29)
The positive and optimistic teachings of the book are appealing.
Almustafa strongly believes in the power of the human soul. He speaks with a
tone that is consoling and filled with hope and compassion for humanity, seen to
be in need for self-realization. Speaking of God and Evil, Almustafa has this to
say:
âYou are good when you are one with yourself
Yet when you are not one with yourself you are not evil.
For a divided house is not a den of thieves; it is only a divided house.
And a ship without rudder may wander aimlessly among perilous isles yet sink not to the
bottom.â
(p. 64)
Gibran also beautifully combines his Romantic thoughts of nature with his
teachings. In his sermon on Reason and Passion, for example, he writes:
âAmong the hills, when you sit in the cool shade of the white poplars, sharing the
peace and serenity of distant fields and meadows â then let your heart say in silence,
âGod rests in reason.â
And when the storm comes, and the mighty wind shakes the forest, and thunder
and lightning proclaim the majesty of the sky, -- then let your heart say in awe, âGod
moves in passionâ
(p. 51).
Critics agree that
The Prophet
is partly autobiographical. Mary is often
said to be the inspiration for Almitra, and America or New York for the city of
Orphalese. The twelve-year wait Almustafa experienced before returning home
from the land of the Orphalese seems to equal Gibranâs own twelve-year stay in
New York City.
In regard to Almustafaâs departure for the land of his birth and his
gratefulness to the people who have given him his âdeeper thirsting after lifeâ (p.
88), it reflects Gibranâs everlasting dream to go back to his homeland and his
gratefulness to the country which he made his home for the last twenty years of
his life.
While creating the prophecy of Almustafa, Gibran undoubtedly considered
his own experience as an âexotic Easternerâ living in America and his interest in
28
teaching Eastern spirituality to the West. Bushrui and Jenkins emphasize the
image of the wise man coming from the East and argued: âthe idea of a sage
dispensing wisdom among the people of a foreign land no doubt appealed to
Gibranâ (Bushrui & Jenkins, 1998, p. 99).
The book apparently also draws on Gibranâs readings, thoughts, and
contemplations through the years. It is inspired by Biblical literature, Christian
and Sufi mysticism, Buddhism, HinduismâŠBut we can also trace the influence of
the Romantics and Transcendentalists.
Talking about
The Prophet
, Mary Haskell promised Gibran that âin our
darkness and in our weakness we will open it, to find ourselves again and
heaven and earth within ourselvesâ (M.H. to K.G., October 2, 1923). Mikhail
Naimy added: âSuch books and such men are our surety that Humanity, despite
the fearful dissipation of its incalculable energies and resources, is not yet
bankruptâ (qtd in Bushrui & Gotch, 1975, p. 9).
The Prophet
seems to reflect Gibranâs efforts to unite various faiths and
religious. Gibran himself declared that
The Prophet
wrote him instead of him
writing
The Prophet
(Daoudi, 1982, p. 99). Behind Almustafaâs global vision of a
harmonious universe healed by the power of love and unity, there is an
underlying theme of the unity of all religions and the essential oneness of
humanity. Gibran communicates a universal humanist message and truths
relevant to all cultures and times. In
The Prophet
, according to Bushrui &
Jenkins, âEast and West meet in a mystic union unparalleled in modern literatureâ
(Bushrui & Jenkins, 1998, p. 228).
Gibranâs reputation in the Western world rests on his masterpiece
The
Prophet
. He is looked up to as a master of philosophy whose teachings are
immortal. The fame of
The Prophet
in terms of its worldwide readership,
however, has shadowed the fame of Gibranâs earlier Arabic writings through
which he had already established a literary name for himself as a distinguished
writer in Arabic.
It should be noted that experts in modern Arabic literature have noticed
that some of Gibranâs translations into English may sound artificial and
29
inadequate, mainly because Arabic and English belong to two different families of
languages, but they do not sound as such in the original Arabic.
For example, with the English translation of Gibran Arabic poem âThe
Procession,â which was his first attempt at writing in classical Arabic with its
rhetorical decoration, metric patterns, and musicality, a certain charm and
elegance seem to fade. It is evident that the original flavor of a literary work
stands alone. It must be emphasized, however, that a fair degree of grace and
greatness penetrates the translation task and Gibranâs message can still be
captured.
The Broken Wings
First published in 1912,
The Broken Wings
(
Al-Ajnihah al-Mutakassirah
) is
one of Kahlil Gibranâs early experimental works through which he sought to
reform the Arabic literature and culture. In a manner unknown in traditional
Arabic writing, it is free from rhetorical flourishes but more importantly, it debates
the issue of the oppressed Arab woman in the Middle Eastern society of the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The novella
was, naturally, attacked by conservatives, but overall it
received a wide vogue and favorable reviews in the Arab world which at the time
was thirsty for new ideas. It even boosted Gibranâs literary career. According to
Gibran himself,
The Broken Wings
was welcomed as âa wonderful work of art,â
âperhaps the most beautiful in modern Arabic,â and as âa tragedy of subtlest
simplicityâ (K. G. to M. H., May 6, 1912).
It is Gibranâs longest sustained narrative, written in the tradition of âRomeo
and Julietâ and based on oriental settings and images. Inspired by his own first
love and bitter experience in his home village Bsharri,
The Broken Wings
gives
the taste of the bittersweet, of the beauty and pain of young love. It is an alive
and profound story characterized by beautiful prose and evocative imagery, a
tale of passion doomed by the restrictions of society and the power and greed of
the clergy.
30
From another romantic perspective, Gibran once again describes the
beautiful nature in North Lebanon which fired his imagination and stirred his
homesickness up to his death. In the âForwardâ we see him rejoicing in spiritual
exaltation from remembering âthose valleys full of magic and dignity,â and âthose
mountains covered with glory and greatness trying to reach the skyâ (p. 18).
Young Kahlil is introduced to Faris Karama, a wealthy widower, and
immediately falls in love with Selma, Karamaâs only child. Selma is equally
attracted to Kahlil. But a powerful priest, who is after the familyâs fortune, puts
pressure on Faris Karama and demands Selmaâs hand for his nephew Mansoor
Bey. Despite Selmaâs protests, her father accepts the match and sends his
daughter to a loveless life.
With Faresâ death, Mansoor Bey takes over Selmaâs inheritance and
begins to waste it in gambling and other thoughtless spending. Meanwhile,
Selma resumes her chaste relationship with Kahlil. But when Mansoor Bey
becomes suspicious, he demands that Selma gives him an heir. She chooses to
confine herself to her new life and thinks of her future infant as a guide out of the
unhappiness that imprisons her. Selmaâs baby dies minutes after birth and she
follows him because of weak health. Kahlil finds himself alone in agony by
Selmaâs tomb.
Gibranâs narrator delicately paints his feelings when describing the
blossoming of his love. He talks about Selmaâs unparalleled beauty and virtue,
her sweetness and nobility of spirit. She lives inside him as a âsupreme thought,
a beautiful dream, an overpowering emotionâ (p. 52).
He believes in the transcendental power of Romantic love and in its
ascendancy over tradition. For him, true love is a supreme way of achieving self-
realization and is the noblest of human attainment. It becomes a spiritual accord
that brings him heavenly inspiration, for through Selmaâs eyes he sees the angels
of Heaven looking at him (p. 20).
Selma, however, tells her beloved that the true nature of a womanâs soul
is a mixture of love and sorrow, affection and sacrifice (p. 105). Her
understanding of the situation is deeper and more complicated. Unable to
31
overcome the values of her society, she chooses commitment to her father and
unloving husband over running away to Kahlilâs love, and so she sacrifices true
love for social customs. She prays: âhelp me, my Lord, to be strong in this
deadly struggle and assist me to be truthful and virtuous until deathâ (p. 77).
Powerless and resigned, she is convinced that âa bird with broken wings
cannot fly in the spacious skyâ (p. 114). For Waterfield, the âbroken wingsâ of the
title are âthe wings of love on which the young couple first explore the exalted
domain of love, only to find themselves brought abruptly down to earth by harsh
realitiesâ (Waterfield, 1998, p. 60).
Gibranâs narrator also sees himself as a wounded bird, but takes a
stronger stance against convention, male chauvinism, and corruption of the
Lebanese aristocracy. His criticism is especially harsh when it comes to the
heads of religion whom he accuses of maintaining the oppression of women. He
says: âthe Christian Bishop and the Moslem imam and the Brahman priest
become like sea reptiles who clutch their pray with many tentacles and suck their
blood with numerous mouthsâ (p. 62).
Gibran sympathetically describes women in his native Lebanon as victims
of a despotic patriarchal system. They are prisoners of social expectations and
are treated as a commodity to be purchased, like in the case of Selma whose
function was to take her fatherâs riches to a husband who treated her like another
possession. Gibran draws attention to âthe miserable procession of the
defeatedâ and âinnocence defiledâ (p. 84).
He urges Selma to liberate herself from the chains of social norms and to
run away with him from a world of suffering, or what he calls âslavery and
ignoranceâ (p. 113) to another world across the oceans (presumably the West)
where âreal freedom and personal independenceâŠcan be foundâ (p. 114-115).
In
The Broken Wings
, Gibran is not just a story teller but a culture analyst
and a reformer who seeks to correct the wrongs. Najjar writes âthat Gibranâs
purpose for that story was to satirize in order to reform is evident in his frequent
didactic intrusions by which he introduces his dissenting views regarding the
conditions of the Arab womanâ (Najjar, 1999, p. 168).
32
The story, however, illustrates Gibranâs attempts at approaching universal
truths. He reflects on the meaning of the human existence and portrays himself
as a champion of women and of the values of human freedom and dignity. For
Shahid, Gibranâs works that speak of women âhave a ring of modernity about
them as they deal with issues that are still burning and being addressed in our
timesâ (Shahid, 2002, p. 15).
Gibranâs other earlier stories also touch on similar native themes and
classify him as a rebel against old culture. In âThe Bridal Couchâ in
Spirits
Rebellious
, Gibran depicts an oppressive patriarchal system that caused
bloodshed. Laila is trapped by her fatherâs social ambitions and is misled by the
societyâs lies. On the evening of her wedding to an arranged husband, Laila
sees her beloved Salim and asks him to run away with her. But bound by social
expectations, he refuses and asks her to go back to her new husband. She
stabs him to death and then kills herself over his body after she gives a sermon
on life and love.
In âRose al Haniâ, another narrative in
Spirits Rebellious
, we meet Rose as
another victim of forced marriage. But unlike Selma Karama, she breaks her
social image of a good wife when she leaves her husband to live with her
beloved. Rose tells the narrator the story of her bitter past, but at the same time
she seems to tell the story of the plight of the Arab woman in general. She says:
âIt is a tragedy written with the womanâs blood and tears which the man reads
with ridicule because he cannot understand it; yet, if he does understand, his
laughter will turn into scorn and blasphemy that act like fire upon her heartâ (
A
Treasury of Kahlil
Gibran
, 1951, p. 186),
A Tear and a Smile
A Tear and A Smile
(
Damâ ah wa-Ibtisamah
), first published in 1914, is an
anthology of Gibranâs youthful writings in the Arabic-speaking ĂmigrĂ© newspaper
Al-Mohajer
(
The Immigrant
). Gibranâs column, âTears and Laughter,â attracted a
33
wide attention from his readers both in the Arab world and among the Arab literati
in America.
The book contains 56 poetic prose pieces close to the aphoristic, and
illustrated with 4 of Gibranâs paintings. In a beautiful and splendid language, the
poems, stories, and parables included exhibit the youthâs world of imagination;
his self-reflective thoughts and romantic philosophy of life and death, which
although at the burgeoning stage, is quiet insightful and universally appealing.
Gibranâs reflections in
A Tear and a Smile
are especially pleasing to those
sensitive and emotional souls which are his most fervent admirers.
As the title evokes, the book is a mixture of tears and smiles, mourning
and celebration of a wounded lover and solitary poet. But the tears seem to be
much more abundant than the smiles. The poet lives in agony and longing for
his beloved, for a restoration of beauty in the world, and for a peace of mind, but
is convinced that human life is a world of suffering to be lived through until death.
Gibran, indeed, sings of the glory of his tears (p. 48) and the beauty of
sorrow. He tells us that a person experiences joy only if he or she has
experienced sorrow. Tears have illuminated his heart and mind; they have given
him sight and deeper knowledge of life: âA tear to purify my heart and give me
understanding of lifeâs secrets and hidden thingsâ (p. 3). In other times, however,
the poet seeks transcendence. In âHave Mercy My Soul,â for example, he asks
his soul how long she will continue to torment him.
Gibran strikingly expresses a romantic fascination with death. For him
death marks the end of suffering and becomes a life-giver, a transcendental and
eternal world where the spirit rests in timelessness. In âA Poetâs Death is His
Life,â the dying youth addresses death as âsweetâ and âbelovedâ friend (pp. 19,
20 respectively) which alone can set his soul free from the sorrow of the world
and take him to a greater life.
In addition to âA Poetâs Life is His Death,â other selections in the book like
âA Poetâs Voiceâ and âThe Poetâ suggest a familiar emphasis on the prophetic
role of the poet and, chronologically speaking, these pieces seem to anticipate
34
Gibranâs ripened philosophy in the later years of his career (Hillyer, p xx, in
âintroductionâ to
A Tear and a Smile
, 1972).
Gibran portrays the poet as the one who brings society to a state of
harmony and sacrifices his life for the redemption of humanity. In his homeland
he is in exile, a stranger in a strange land because his people undervalue his
teachings and fail to see his virtues.
The poet is a visionary and, unlike the rest of humankind, clear and
universal perceptions are his gift. He is the one who bears ripe fruits for the
hungry souls (p. 134) and is capable of opening peopleâs eyes into eternity and
enlightening generations. For Gibran the poet is a âsinging birdâ (p. 134), âA
shining light unconquered by the darkâ and even an âAngel sent by the gods to
teach man the way of godsâ (p. 81).
The poet lives somewhere between a real world and a transcendent world.
He is the final stage in the evolution of man which he describes as a process
from descent into the material world to alienation to a return to the spiritual
universe. Hence he reveals his passionate belief that men are capable of
discovering their inherent divinity because humanity is the spirit of divinity on
earth (p. 191). He emphasizes the deeper power of the soul, for true light comes
from within man.
Gibran rejoices in feelings of self-fulfillment through a mystical union with
God who is âthe Ocean of Love and Beautyâ (p. 4). He invites us to a
contemplative life rather than the comfort of materialism. He opens âThe
Playground of Lifeâ saying:
âA minute moving among the patterns of Beauty and the dreams of Love is
greater and more precious than an age filled with splendor granted by the weak to the
strongâ (p. 120).
Gibran accomplishes transcendence also through union with nature. In
several of the selections he expresses an aesthetic and spiritual affinity to the
valleys and the flowers, the shore and the wind. In âMeetingâ, for example, he
describes the glorious valley of the Nile and its magical cedars and cypress
trees. He associates nature not only with beauty but with purity and friendship.
35
He tells us that natureâs sweet words and tender smile fill the spirit with joy
(p.113).
The hard edge to the book, however, represents Gibranâs frustration and
anger with the corruption of humanity. In bitter and ironic tones, he describes a
world that glorifies power and the pursuit of richness rather than human values.
He expresses his sympathy with the poor and the wretched who are being
exploited and abused by the rich and the powerful.
In the same mode as
The Broken Wings
, Gibran rejects orthodoxy and
organized religion. He attacks priests for he believes they embody falsehood,
immorality, and evil. He writes: âI beheld priests, sly like foxes; and false
messiahs dealing its trickery with the peopleâ (p. 40).
In his famous poem âA Vision,â Gibran reemphasizes his concern for
individual freedom in society. He uses an allegory between a caged bird and a
caged human heart that laments the imprisonment of men by convention and
civilization. The human heart reflects Gibranâs criticism of the oppressiveness of
man-made laws which he believes strip the human being of his life and essence.
From a biographical point of view, it is probable that Gibranâs relationship
with Josephine Peabody at the time inspired his thoughts in the book. This
probability seems consistent with Waterfieldâs argument that the poetâs painful
love for Josephine created âthe melancholy habits and wounded eyes of the
Romantic heroâ (Waterfield, 1998, p. 88).
We can also find a parallel to the feelings of alienation and dissatisfaction
with humankind in Gibranâs own life. Nadeem Naimy sees the book as a bridge
between a first and a second stage of Gibranâs career, the poetâs longing for his
homeland evolved into rebellion against humanity in general. Naimy points out
that the tears in
A Tear
and A Smile
âare those of Gibran the misfit rather than of
the rebel in Boston, singing in an exceedingly touching way of his frustrated love
and estrangement, his loneliness, homesickness and melancholyâ (Naimy, 1974,
p. 59).
36
CHAPTER 4
AMEEN RIHANI AND MIKHAIL NAIMY
Ameen Rihani (1876-1940)
Contributions
While Gibran is the most celebrated Arab American writer and most
familiar to US readers, Ameen Rihani is âthe father of Arab American Literature.â
He was the first Arab American to write a novel in English and hence the first to
address himself to a Western audience and an international audience at large.
He is regarded as the founder of âAdab Al-Mahjarâ (Immigrant Literature) and one
of the pioneers of the movement of modern Arabic literature and thought.
Among readers of Arab American literature, Rihani is indeed known for
being âthe father of prose poetry.â Through his
Hutaf-ul Awdiya
(
Hymn of the
Valleys
), he was the first Arab poet to introduce free verse to the traditional
Arabic poetic canon, although with less imaginative and emotional intensity than
Gibranâs poems. This new free verse style of poetry reached his fellow Arab
poets both in the US and the Arab East, and continued to have an impact on
modern Arabic poetry throughout the 20th century. Rihani also had an impact on
the development of the art of the essay in modern Arabic, which built his
reputation as a forward thinker and a visionary.
During Rihaniâs lifetime, Arab American literature gained in prosperity and
strength. By 1919, there were nine Arabic-language newspapers, many of them
dailies, supported by 70,000 immigrants. Nada Najjar added that, with Rihani,
Arab American literature witnessed a more sophisticated stage in which writers
were more familiar with Western thoughts (Najjar, 1999, p. 154).
Rihani can be classified as both a Romantic idealist and a Realist. He
was a rebel who dealt with the abstract and the spiritual, but was at the same
time socially committed. As a political analyst and activist, he advocated East-
West understanding, particularly a dialogue of peace between the US and the
37
Arabs, and worked for the liberation of Lebanon and Syria from the Turkish rule,
as he was an opponent of the Ottoman regime.
Rihani had a keen knowledge of both East and West and constantly talked
about the virtues of both. In
The Path of Vision
, for example, Rihani celebrates
intercultural exchanges and emphasizes East-West synthesis that unifies the
spirit of the East and the mind of the West. According to Najjar, Rihani once
said: âthe most highly developed being is neither European (including the
Americans) nor Oriental, but rather he who partakes of the finer qualities of bothâ
(qtd. in Najjar, 1999, p. 133).
Among his many accomplishments, Rihani was the one to revive a
tradition of travel works in Arabic literature in the twenties and thirties. He was
the first Arab traveler of modern history to present a counter-Orientalist
perspective. He portrayed the realities of Arabia including the spiritual and
intellectual heritage of this land.
Rihani, in fact, remained faithful to his Arab roots. He reconciled his
Christian and Muslim Arab background and believed in a rich synthesis of
Christian and Muslim heritage, a synthesis that rejects fanaticism and extremism.
As a person with a bicultural identity, as both an Arab and an American, he
brought Western ideas, such as personal freedom and cultural accomplishments,
to his Arab audience, and applied Western literary concepts to Arabic themes. In
return he enriched the English language through his translations and transmitted
elements of Eastern spirituality to his English-speaking readers.
The Path of Vision,
for example, reflects a Western discourse that values
individual freedom. Rihani writes:
âIf we are concerned in breaking the fetters that are fastened upon our
bodies and souls by external agencies only, we are doomed to failure. But if we become
aware of the fetters, which we, in the sub-consciousness of centuries of submission,
have fastened upon the spirit within us and strive to free ourselves of them first, then we
are certain to triumph. For freedom of the spirit is the cornerstone of all freedom. And
this can be attained only by realizing its human limitations and recognizing its divine
claim. It might be said too that freedom is to spirit what gravity is to matter. It is inherent
in it and limited, yea, fettered by it. To know and recognize this truth, is to rise to the
highest form of freedom.â
(From
The Path of Vision
, qtd. in Bushrui, 1990, p. 8).
38
In the same collection, Rihani celebrates the multiculturalism that America
represents saying:
âThe Melting Pot certainly has a soul. And this soul will certainly have a voice.
And the voice of AmericaâŠis destined to become the voice of the world. Its culture, too,
its arts and its traditions, whichâŠare being coloured and shaded, impregnated with alien
influences, will embody the noblest expression of beauty and truth that the higher spirit
of the Orient and the Occident combined is capable of conceiving. They will embody
also a universal consciousness, multifarious, multicolour, prismaticâŠWhile every people
has its own traditions, which differ more or less according to the national, social and
historical influences acting upon them, they all find a common soil in America and an
uncommon hospitality. And from these traditions, developing gradually into a
homogeneity all-embracing, will spring the culture and the consciousness that will make
America, not only a great national power, but, what is greater, an international entity.â
(From
The Path of Vision
, qtd. in Bushrui, 1990, p. 1)
Rihaniâs American education and readings of Western culture had an
impact on his literary career. Like Gibran, Rihaniâs family immigrated to the
United States for a better living. According to Walter Dunnavent (1991), the
twelve-year-old Rihani was sent to a church school in New York City for one
year, then was taken to help in the familyâs bookstore. While working there for
the next four years, Rihani devoted a big part of his time for his readings. He
became familiar with Shakespeare, Rousseau, Victor Hugo, Washington Irving,
and Carlyle. He later added Emerson, Whitman, and Thoreau to the list.
At the age of 19 Rihani joined a touring stock company and played various
roles including Hamlet and Macbeth. Then after the failure of the company he
started law studies in the New York Law School. A lung infection, however,
interrupted this new direction (Dunnavent, 1991, p. 14). He returned to Lebanon
in 1898 where he taught English in a church school and had a similar experience
to Gibranâs four-year-break in Beirut, studying Arabic and discovering the
richness of the Arab heritage.
After he went back to New York City in 1899, Rihani started contributing to
Arabicâlanguage newspapers like
al-Hoda
,
al-Islah
, and
al-Ayyam
where he
39
wrote about social traditions, religion, and politics in Lebanon. He later joined
several literary, artistic, and political associations.
In 1905 Rihani returned to Lebanon for a five-years-period during which
he met with Arab writers and journalists (Dunnavant, 1991, p. 20). He also
developed an interest in political activism mainly in regards to the issue of Syriaâs
independence from the Ottoman Empire, a cause which Gibran strived for.
During his early acquaintance with Gibran, he wrote to the
Al-Mohajer
newspaper praising one of Gibranâs articles which criticized Arab writers for
imitating their traditional predecessors and for using poetry for financial gains. In
1910, Rihani and Gibran planned to have an opera house built in Beirut for the
promotion of the arts.
Along with the Romantics and the Transcendentalists, the Sufis influenced
much of his style. Sufism, or Islamic Mysticism, focuses on an inner spiritual
experience of a union with God and the unity of existence. His Sufi poetry
included in â
A Chant of Mysticsâ
and Other Poems
sings of the spiritual oneness
of all things. The following is an extract:
âWe are not of the East or the West;
No boundaries exist in our breast:
We are free.
Nor Crescent nor Cross we adore;
Nor Budha nor Christ we implore;
Nor Muslem nor Jew we abhor;
We are freeâ.
(From
âA Chant of Mysticsâ and Other Poems
, 1921, p. 106)
Rihani wrote about a wide a range of topics like Arabic Renaissance,
political and social issues, modern American painting, Russian ballet, etc. He
produced 26 volumes in Arabic (poetry, short stories, literary criticism, and
historical and political analysisâŠ) and 29 in English (poetry, collection of essays,
travel chronicles, novels, translations of classic Arabic poetryâŠ).
The most distinguished of his English writings are his novel
The Book of
Khalid
(1911) which influenced many of his successors like Gibran and Naimy
and his translations of the 11
th
Century Arab poet Abuâl-Ala al-Maâarri which
40
appeared in
The Quatrains of Abuâl-Ala
(1903), then in a revised version under
the title
The Luzumiyat of Abuâ l-Ala
(1918).
Also notable are his
A Chant of Mystics
and other poems
(1921), his
social and reformist essays in
The Path of Vision
(1921), and his travel trilogy,
Ibn Saoud of Arabia: His people and His Land
(1928),
Around the coasts of
Arabia
(1930), and
Arabian Peak and Desert: Travels in al-Yamen
(1930).
In the early 1920âs, however, Rihani shifted from his mystical themes in
The Book of Khalid
and
A Chant of Mystics and Other Poems
towards a more
overtly political literary approach. His image of the exotic mystic disappeared in
favor of another image of a spokesman for the Arabs and their causes.
Rihani actually did not join his fellow writers for the 1920 formation of al-
Rabitah-al-Qalamiyah (The Pen Bond) while he was a member of the 1916
formation. Scholars attribute Rihaniâs withdrawal to his anxiety regarding Syriaâs
situation after World War I
and his increasing involvement in politics.
Rihani indeed chose to return to his homeland where he started his travels
throughout the Arab world. He continued to write in English but, interestingly, his
writings were Arab in their culture and issues. Rihani developed his interest in
Pan-Arabism and the situation in Palestine, while Gibran and Naimy continued
their transcendental course which focused on the imaginative and the lyrical and
went beyond the real world.
Nadeem Naimy notes that Rihaniâs Arab nationalism was a âdeparture
from the mahjar (emigrant) literary tradition he himself initiatedâ (Naimy, 1985, p.
30). Najjar argues, in contrast, that his Arab nationalism actually fostered the
literary path he had already taken (Najjar, 1999, p. 132). This seems consistent
with Nashâs argument that while maintaining his bi-cultural identity, Rihani
focused on Arab unity in a world where the Orient and Occident have a reciprocal
relationshipâ (Nash, 1998, p. 78).
Rihaniâs Arab identity was not an enclosed one but had a universal
dimension. He articulated Middle Eastern issues to Western figures and
remained faithful to the cause of East-West understanding and the liberation of
the Arabs from foreign dominance. Bushrui asserts that Rihani âfirmly believed in
41
his country, Lebanon, and saw it in the context of the great Arab heritage, as he
saw the Arab world in the wider context of the family of nationsâ (Bushrui, 1990,
p. 2).
Rihani is a thinker who envisioned a revived Arab world that reaches out
to the Western world. He dreamt of building Arab unity through a confederation
and urged the Arabs to reform their political system and build a true democracy
in addition to a new interpretation of the Quran. He attributed the decay of Arab
societies to sectarianism, fatalism, and stagnation. Rihani also wrote much
about Palestine vis-a vis the growing Zionist movement. He believed that
spiritual Zionism could prosper peacefully in Palestine but warned that political
Zionism would lead to violence in the region.
Because of his importance in the new literary culture of the Emigrant
School, I concentrate next on the spiritual and mystical concerns of Ameen
Rihani as reflected in his masterpiece, the first novel written in English by an
Arab American:
The Book of Khalid
.
The Book of Khalid
Rihani wrote
The Book of Khalid
in his mountain solitude back in Lebanon.
It was later published in 1911 after he returned to New York. The novel reflects
Rihaniâs philosophical thought and his spiritual and sentimental tendencies.
Though written in English, it is predominately Arab in its themes and concerns in
addition to the fact that it borrowed many words and expressions from the Arabic
language.
Critics view
The Book of Khalid
as a book of ideas. Dunnavent, for
example, notices that story becomes a vehicle for introducing the ideas
(Dunnavent, 1991, p. 112). The book is an account of the immigrant experience
and of the liberated Arab mind in its quest of spirituality, reconciliation of East
and West, and of reform.
The plot is divided into three parts, each one called a âbookâ and each
representing a different stage of Khalidâs spiritual quest. âBook the First: In the
Exchangeâ tells the story of Khalid from his boyhood in Lebanon to his tiredness
from materialism in America as well as his intellectual, emotional, and spiritual
42
confrontations (his readings, his realization of the existence of the soul or his
âinner divinityââŠ).
Khalidâs hope that America is the Promised Land where the spirituality of
the East and the prosperity of the West coexist ends in disappointment. He
understands the need for America and the Old World to build a cultural bridge
and decides to go back and do something for his home country.
âBook the Second: In the Templeâ tells the story of his return to Lebanon
and his experience of spiritual rebirth in the woods. Khalid retreated from the
world after being excommunicated due to his problems with the church. âBook
the Third: In Kulmakanâ covers Khalidâs life from his one-year hermetic life in the
hills of Lebanon to his flight to Egypt and his eventual disappearance.
After his return to society, Khalid decides to be reformer and founder of an
Arab empire that would blend the best of both East and West, the soul of the
East and the mind of the West. He was, however, chased by authorities and
forced to flee. A final tragedy, the death of his lover Najma and her baby, stops
Khalidâs dream and causes his disappearance.
The Book of Khalid
is thought to be semi-autobiographical. Many critics
relate Khalid to Rihaniâs personal growth in the U.S and his post-immigration
experience in his homeland. The book, however, has universal dimensions as
well in the sense that it expresses universal thoughts. It was actually dedicated,
it must be emphasized, to âmy Brother Man, my Mother Nature and my Maker
Godâ.
In New York, Khalid realizes his prophethood and talks about the spiritual
values of the East. He considers himself as his countryâs âchosen voice.â He
says: âFor our country is just beginning to speak, and I am her chosen voice. I
feel that if I do not come to her, she will be dumb foreverâ (p. 128).
Khalid believes in the power and potential of the soul. In order for
spirituality to become fuller, the soul has to be free from social order and
restrictions. He says: âThere is an infinite possibility of soul-power in every one
of us, if it can be developed freely, spontaneously, without discipline or restraintâ
(p. 71). During his transcendentalist retreat to the woods, he rejoices in the
43
beauty of nature which he sees as a projection of the spiritual and the invisible.
He hears âthe voice of the dawn, the dawn of a new life, of a better, purer,
healthier, higher spiritual kingdomâ (p. 236).
The Book of Khalid
paved the way to a new trend within Arab American
literature, a trend toward a discourse of prophecy and sageness, reconciliation of
matter and spirit, and the unification of East and the West to a larger unified
universe. Nash notes that through
The Book of Khalid
, Rihani âhad invented a
fictive messiah, and produced an appropriate prophetic discourse for himâ (Nash,
1998, p. 29).
Also
Ameen Albert Rihani points out to the achievement of
The
Book of Khalid
in terms of being a springboard to
The Prophet
as another major
prophetic work in Arab-American literature (Rihani, 1999, p. 1).
Ameen Rihani was a mentor and an inspiring example to Khalil Gibran.
The latter seemed to have the image of the prophet in mind when he did the
illustrations for
The Book of Khalid
. Some of the drawings represent such
images as a sphinx with wings, a person carrying a torch, and human bodies
following a leader.
The prophetic aspect and vision of Khalid reminds the reader of Al-
Mustafa and his teachings in
The Prophet
. His life-long aim of balancing the
material and the spiritual is dictated by wisdom. He speaks with a Messiah tone
like when he says
:
âLight, Love, and Will â with corals and pearls from their seas
would I crown thee, O my City. In these streams would I baptize thy children, O
my Cityâ (p. 247).
Both Khalid and Al-Mustafa dealt with topics such as truth, human
existence, knowledge, love, friendship, democracyâŠand they both had their
disciples (Shakib and Al-Mitra respectively) who play the role of pupil and
interviewer. Also interestingly, both Khalid and Al-Mustafa preached Eastern
spirituality among the people of a foreign land.
Suheil Bushrui and Joe Jenkins (1998) support this comment by driving
attention to the image of the wise man coming from the East which we encounter
in both works: âthe idea of a sage dispensing wisdom among the people of a
foreign land no doubt appealed to him (Gibran).â They elaborate, saying that:
44
âRihaniâs book may be said to have foreshadowed Gibranâs
The Prophet
in that it
conveys the teachings of the East in the language of the West, and was written
by an Arab who appreciated the best of both worldsâ (Bushrui & Jenkins, 1998, p.
99).
In another place, Bushrui has this to say about Gibran and Rihani: âIt is no
exaggeration to say that these two men made the most important intellectual and
literary contribution to the revitalization of Arab intellectual life in the first quarter
of the 20
th
centuryâ (Bushrui, 1990, p. 6). Mikhail Naimy, it can be argued, might
be added to the list as another major pioneer in bringing about a revolution in
Arabic literature.
Mikhail Naimy (1889-1988)
Contributions
Mikhail Naimy is widely recognized in the Arab world as one of the most
important figures in modern Arabic letters. Like Gibran and Rihani, Naimyâs work
and thought are a blend of East and West. In addition to Eastern Christianity and
Eastern Mysticism, his language is evocative of the Russian mystics and
American transcendentalists.
His name is connected with many Arab American periodicals, especially
Al-Funun
(
The Arts
: 1913-1918) which he referred to as âthe beautiful and
fragrant journalistic lilyâ (1964, p. 153). He was a regular contributor and, along
with Nazmi Nasim and Raghib Mitraj, he helped Nasib Arida, the editor,
administer the journal. After its demise, however, only Naimyâs name became
well-known to the Arab American readers. Richard Popp attributes this to
Naimyâs many contributions to
Al-Funun
which reached 28 in total (Popp, 2000,
p. 96).
Naimy was also a secretary and active member of the Arab American
literary society al-Rabitah-al-Qalamiya (The Pen League). He also composed
the manifesto at the time of its formation in 1920. The following is an extract:
45
ââŠNot everything that parades as literature is literature; nor is every rimester a
poet. The literature we esteem as worthy of the name is that only which draws its
nourishment from Lifeâs soil and light and airâŠAnd the man of letters is he who is
endowed with more than the average mortalâs share of sensitiveness and taste, and the
power of estimation and penetration together with the talent of expressing clearly and
beautifully whatever imprints Lifeâs constant waves leave upon his soulâŠâ
(Naimy, 1964, p. 155-156).
Naimy is known for literary criticism. As a champion of reform, his critical
writings opened doors to a new concept of literature among his fellow Arab
writers. In his first critical article âFajr al Amalâ (âThe Dawn of Hopeâ), published
by
Al-Funun
in 1913, he rejects traditional Arabic literature as a literature of
decoration and imitation. He even goes further to call it âmummified literatureâ.
For him the poet should focus primarily on imagination rather than language,
essence rather than form.
The sources on Naimyâs education and background are limited. But it is
known that when he was a law student at Washington State University and
before even he met Gibran, the 24-year-old Naimy was sent a copy of Gibranâs
The Broken Wings
. He wrote a long review of it in which he criticized the
simplicity of the plot and characterization in the sense that the book conveys a
passive attitude and does not give solutions to the problems, but saw it as a
departure from the approved canons of Arabic literature and appreciated the fact
that it dealt with ânativeâ social issues. The publication of the review by
Al-Funun
marked the beginning of Naimyâs career as writer and critic.
Naimy developed a close relationship with Gibran through
Fatat-Boston
and
Al-Funun
. Gibran lovingly called him âMischa,â and in his letters he
addressed him as âMy Dear Mischaâ or âBrother Mischa,â and sometimes
âBeloved Brother Mischa.â Naimy also admired Gibran and became influenced
by him. In the introduction to his biography, he emphasizes the fact that Gibran
sought to make his soul âas beautiful as the beauty he glimpsed with his
imagination and so generously spread in his books and drawingsâ (Naimy, 1964,
p. xxx).
Naimy produced a significant body of literature: novels, short stories,
drama, poetry, critical essays, but his most familiar works are his biography of
46
Gibran (1950),
Al-Ghirbal
(
The Sieve)
1932, and
Muzakarat Al-Arkash
(
Memoirs
of a Vagrant Soul)
1949. Also famous is his
The Book of Mirdad
(1946) which
was written in English, and in which Naimy picked up on his predecessors by
adapting a prophetic tone in conveying timeless wisdom.
Most of his essays are collected in
Al-Ghirbal
(
The Sieve
). âAl-Habahibâ
(âThe Fireflyâ), for example, severely attacks Arab culture, including its literary
conventions. He describes the Arab society as a society of stagnation and
resignation which hopes to make progress by prayer rather than education and
hard work. In the beginning of his career, indeed, Naimy expressed a negative
attitude towards Arab culture and a firm belief in Western cultural superiority.
This might be attributed partly to his Western education in Russian missionary
schools in his native village of Baskinta and Ukraine before he immigrated to the
United States.
Again in
Al-Ghirbal
(1932) he claims that Arab classic poets and
philosophers are insignificant compared to Western figures such as Homer,
Virgil, Shakespeare, Milton, Hugo, and Tolstoy (p. 48-49). Because he
considered Western literature to be the highly admired prototype of literary
excellence (Naimy, 1967, p. 55-56), Naimy advised Arab writers to translate it. In
âLet us translateâ he writes: âOur contact with the West has alerted many of our
spiritual needsâŠthat our writers and intellectuals cannot satisfyâŠlet us translate
and exalt the translator who introduces us to the bigger human familyâ (
Al-
Ghirbal
, 1932, p. 127).
Naimyâs earlier realistic literature dealt with the situation of the Arab
woman vis-Ă -vis the repressive old traditions. This is evident in âHer New Yearâ
and âThe Barren Women.â Also his earlier play
Fathers and Sons
(1917)
addressed the issue of social expectations and the generation gap in Lebanese
society. More importantly, it is considered one of the first attempts to introduce
drama into Arabic literature.
Naimy then chose a more mystical approach to life. His writings became
grounded in Eastern philosophies and metaphysical experiences. Like Gibranâs,
they emphasize the importance of individual spirituality and embrace the doctrine
47
of the unity of being and the power of universal love. Naimy advocated a
universal mystical philosophy which, in Najjarâs opinion, helped him harmonize
his bi-cultural identity as was the case with Gibran (Najjar, 1999, p. 150).
Also interestingly, later in his career Naimy rejected his former belief in
Western superiority and started to criticize Western civilization and its neglect of
spirituality. This is best represented in a poem written in 1922 where he says:
âWho are you and what are you to rule over mankind
As if even the sun and the moon were under your controlâ
(qtd. in Najjar, 1999, p.149).
Like Rihani, Naimy did not get his merited recognition in the United States,
although he was once nominated for the Noble Prize in Literature. Naimy did not
reach the American mainstream probably because he wrote mainly in Arabic.
Najjar points to the fact that, when his first English book was published, he had
already left the United States for Lebanon (Najjar, 1999, p. 152). In 1932 Naimy
settled in Baskinta where he continued to write and lecture and fulfilled the dream
he shared with Gibran which consists in retreating into the nature of Lebanon.
I focus next on Naimyâs âSaâat al-Cuckooâ (The Cuckoo Clock), a short
story in a collection entitled
Once Upon A Time
and also on his novella
Muzakarat Al-Arkash
(Memoirs of a Vagrant Soul) since they both reflect
Naimyâs shift to a more contemplative universal message and spiritual discourse.
The Cuckoo Clock
In
The Cuckoo Clock
Naimy rejects Western civilization and embraces the
spirituality of the East symbolized by his native Lebanon. Khattar Masâad, a
Lebanese farmer was to be married to âZumurudâ but âFerris,â an immigrant from
America, charmed her and the whole village with his Western clothing and
English language, and especially with his cuckoo clock he brought from America.
Khattar becomes confused and convinced that a better life awaits him there. So
he immigrates to America where he becomes rich but realizes that his wealth did
not bring him happiness.
He finds out that his wife married him for his money, but more importantly
that his wealth drove him away from the spiritual qualities he used to have.
48
Khattar is now aware of the value of a simple spiritual lifestyle as opposed to a
materialistic one. He imagines himself working in the fields again and enjoying
the clean and fresh air. He becomes disgusted with the city which he describes
as a âmonstrous tower of Babel on wheels descending, with demonic speed, a
mountain whose top is hidden in the clouds and whose base is a bottomless pitâ
and gets deceived by the âgrand clock from which a large mechanical bird
emerged periodically crying our âCuckoo! Cuckoo!â (p. 39).
He eventually returns to his village and develops a strong relationship
with his people who name him âAbu-Maâroofâ (the kind/generous one). He
advises them to love their land and village and preaches his belief that âin the soil
is an aroma that is absent in the perfumerâs shopâ (p. 14).
From an autobiographical standpoint, Khattar Masâad foreshadowed
Naimyâs eventual return to his homeland where he strived to educate his people
against the mechanical and artificial Western urban culture (Najjar, 1999, p. 148).
Naimyâs
Memoirs of a Vagrant Soul
also echoes his love of simplicity, freedom,
and the pursuit of spirituality.
Memoirs of a Vagrant Soul or The Pitted Face:
Pitted Face is a thirty-year-old Argentinean of Lebanese origin. After three
years of working as a waiter at a Syrian restaurant in Manhattan, he disappears
leaving behind his memoirs which happen to fall in the narratorâs hands. Pitted
Faceâs memoirs are an account of his life of silence and meditation. Being
mentally detached from society, he examines the meaning of human existence
and his place as an âobscure, insignificant, and uncomely manâ (pp. 9, 14). He
expresses his disenchantment with what he thinks to be a world of greed, hatred,
and wars.
Pitted Face is driven by two different forces: a physical one (his worldly
pursuits) and a spiritual one (his meditative course). His portrait of this dilemma
is as follows:
âI must be two Pitted Faces in one: the first is a man who has withdrawn from the
world of men and wrapped himself in silence that he may reach a world of a higher order
and move with it in an orbit other than that of the earth; the second is a man cut off from
the main human current by some human side-currents, and striving to rejoin the herd.
49
He is of a lower world and is ill at ease excepting in that world, with which, so it seems,
he has many accounts to settleâ
(p. 67).
Because he believed in the continuation of life in death and wanted to
reach a higher state of being and completely unchain his soul, he killed his bride
Najla at the end and then killed himself. The novella hence embodies the human
struggle between the physical and the spiritual. It exhibits Naimyâs mystical
philosophy which emphasizes the importance of the spiritual side of life and the
fact that the purpose of the human being is to be unified with the divine. Nadeem
Naimy makes a believable connection between Pitted Face and the author by
saying that the book reflects the isolation and alienation that Naimy himself
experienced in New York (1967, p. 173). It must be mentioned, however, that
the intensity and tragic turn of the book cannot be traced in Naimyâs own life.
Naimy and Gibran overlap. The above works remind us of Gibranâs
bitterness towards the ills of society, his idea of death as a release from the
sorrow of life, his Rousseau-like belief in the natural goodness of man away from
the corrupting civilizationâŠ
In his famous poem âAl-Mawakibâ (The Procession) 1919, for example,
Gibran expresses his outrage about manâs laws and material pursuit as opposed
to the natural flow of life. The poem is a dialogue between a youth who sings of
the virtues of the natural world and an old sage who mourns the futility of the
world and civilization which he believes is an obstacle for humanity to fulfill its
spiritual self.
In Gibranâs short story âal-âAsifaâ 1920, translated as
The Storm
or
The
Tempests
, the protagonist Youssuf El-Fakhri very much resembles Pitted Face
and might actually have inspired his creation. He is self-emancipated from
society and lives in a hut alone in the mountains of Lebanon. He explains
himself to the narrator on why he chose a hermitic life:
ââŠI did not seek solitude for religious purposes, but solely to avoid the people
and their laws, their teachings and their traditions, their ideas and their clamour and their
wailing.â
âI sought solitude in order to keep from seeing the faces of men who sell
themselves and buy with the same price that which is lower than they are, spiritually and
materially.â
50
âI sought solitude in order that I might not encounter the women who walk
proudly, with one thousand smiles upon their lips, while in the depths of their thousand of
hearts there is but one purpose.â
âI sought solitude in order to conceal myself from those self-satisfied individuals
who see the spectre of knowledge in their dreams and believe that they have attained
their goal.â
âI fled from society to avoid those who see but the phantom of truth in their
awakening, but shout to the world that they have acquired completely the essence of
truth.â
âI deserted the world and sought solitude because I became tired of rendering
courtesy to those multitudes who believe that humility is a sort of weakness, and mercy
a kind of cowardice, and snobbery a form of strength.â
(From
A Treasury of Kahlil Gibran
, 1951, p. 17-18).
51
CONCLUSION
Kahlil Gibran, Ameen Rihani, and Mikhail Naimy are like-minded
Lebanese intellectuals who fostered a new sense of identity among their Arab
readers and revitalized Arabic literature in both form and content. They belong to
a generation of Arab exiles who constituted the first record of an Arab American
literary voice in the early years of the 20
th
century. All three started as Western
modernizers who borrowed a great deal from Western culture, but remained
faithful to their origins. They enriched the literary field in the US with works from
their native Arab East and were dedicated to an intercultural reconciliation, an
East-West understanding.
Among these three awe-inspiring literary voices, Kahlil Gibran holds a
unique place as the leading representative of Arab American literature. His
literary achievements as well as artistic talents are appreciated all over the world
and remain representatives of his legacy. Gibran is a Romantic but visionary, a
madman but wise man, a revolutionary but peacemaker. He constantly
expressed his love of freedom, of nature, of humanityâŠHis doctrine is of the
brotherhood of man, and of justice and universal love. His writings stay beautiful
and timeless. They are as insightful and relevant in our present time as when
Gibran first drafted them.
Gibran particularly moved his readers with
The Prophet
, the words of
which eloquently carry deep truths of our human existence.
The Prophet
, which
Gibran considered as his greatest achievement, remains widely popular; another
Bible
for millions of people around the world, and hence fulfilling Gibranâs desire
to be a âpoet-prophetâ.
The English-speaking readers who are impressed by Gibranâs
The
Prophet
might want to add his Arabic works to their list.
The Broken Wings
,
A
Tear and a Smile
, and âThe Processionâ are enduring in terms of their beauty
and lasting influence over Arabic literature.
52
Yet, despite his significant place in world literature, Americans do not
know Gibran enough. He has not been studied extensively by scholars nor given
his deserved attention from the American literary establishment. While his works
are now taught as classics in the Arab world, he is outside the canon of American
literature.
Gibran is seen as a gift from Lebanon to America and to the world at
large. This is definitely true, but Gibran also certainly owes the title of âthe genius
of his ageâ to his adopted country which helped him prosper, and particularly to
the generous patronage of Mary Haskell who steered his career.
This study is meant to be a contribution, an attempt to explore the
richness of early Arab American literature and provide a fuller understanding of
Kahlil Gibranâs career, in particular. It, however, suggests further research into
the field of Arab American literature.
53
APPENDIX A
The following is a list of some of Kahlil Gibranâs writings. The list is a
bouquet of Gibranâs themes which, as this study emphasizes, allow readers to
explore different sides of Gibran. The following books might be useful for High
School English teachers as they address the studentsâ emotional and spiritual
awareness and give them the opportunity to get familiar with another multicultural
literary voice.
Title Description
The Prophet
A book of 26 fine poetic essays, illustrated with
some of Gibranâs mystical drawings.
Almustapha, the prophet, gives of his timeless
wisdom and insights on topics of life.
The Broken Wings
Gibranâs only novel. A delicate story of young love
that vanishes away in tradition.
Gibran angrily depicts the plight of the Arab woman
in his time.
âThe Processionâ
A long ode in classical Arabic.
Two metaphorical characters, Age and Youth,
analyze the human society with its laws and
aspirations, and embrace the fullness of the self in
nature.
The Madman
A volume of illustrated parables and aphorisms,
mostly in a tone that is ironic and rebellious against
humankind. Gibran instead follows his inner true
self.
A Tear and a Smile
An anthology of Gibranâs early newspaper prose
poems and stories, illustrated with four of his
drawings.
The poet finds solace in his tears and in nature,
and sings of his prophet-like role.
Sand and Foam
A book of captivating and inspiring aphorisms and
parables, all in Gibranâs beautifully cadenced
language.
Spirits Rebellious
An early collection of four short stories: âRose-Al
Haniâ, âThe Bridal Couchâ, âThe Cry of the Gravesâ,
and âKhalil the Heretic.â They all portray people
who defy authority and social tradition in Lebanon.
54
APPENDIX B
PHOTOGRAPHS
Figure 1: One of the last photographs of Gibran
(from Robin Waterfieldâs
The Life
and Times of Kahlil Gibran
).
55
Figure 2: A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of The Pen League
(from left to right): Nasib âArida, Kahlil Gibran, âAbd al-Masih Haddad, and
Mikhail Naimy.
(from Robin Waterfieldâs
The Life
and Times of Kahlil Gibran
).
56
Figure 3: A portrait of Mary Haskell by Gibran, pencil on paper, 1910
(from Suheil Bushrui & Joe Jenkinsâ
Kahlil Gibran: Man and Poet
)
57
Figure 4: A portrait of Gibranâs mother, Kamila Rahma, pencil on paper
(from Suheil Bushrui & Joe Jenkinsâ
Kahlil Gibran: Man and Poet
)
58
APPENDIX C
LETTERS
These letters are from Mikhail Naimyâs
Kahlil Gibran: A Biography
, 1964.
59
60
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Articles
Bushrui, Suheil B. âKahlil Gibran of America.â
The Arab American
Dialogue
7.3 (1996).
Hillyer, Robert. âThoughts of a Mystic.â
The New York Times Book Review
(April 3, 1949): 7.
Irwin, Robert. âI am a False Alarm.â
London Review of Books
20.17
(1998).
Naimy, Nadim. âThe Mind and Thought of Kahlil Gibranâ,
Journal of Arabic
Literature
5 (1974): 55-71.
Books
Bushrui, Suheil B.
Kahlil Gibran of Lebanon
. Gerrarda Cross: Colin
Smythe, 1987.
Bushrui, Suheil B. & Jenkins, Joe.
Kahlil Gibran: Man and Poet
. Oxford:
Oneworld, 1998.
Bushrui, Suheil B. & Gotch, Paul (eds).
Gibran of Lebanon: New Papers
.
Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1975.
Badawi, Muhammad M.
Modern Arabic Poetry
. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1975.
Daoudi, M. S.
The Meaning of Kahlil Gibran
. Secaucus: Citadel Press,
1982.
Hawi, Khalil S.
Khalil Gibran: His Background, Character and Works
.
Beirut: The Arab Institute for Research and Publishing, 1972.
Gibran, Jean & Gibran, Khalil.
Kahlil Gibran: His Life and World
. New
York: Avenel Book, 1981.
Naimy, Nadim.
The Lebanese Prophets of New York
. Beirut: The
Lebanese University of Beirut, 1985.
Nash, Geoffrey P.
The Arab Writers in English:
Arab Themes in
Metropolitan
Language, 1908-1958
. Oregon: Sussex Academic Press, 1998.
61
Waterfield, Robin.
Prophet: The Life and Times of Kahlil Gibran
. New
York: St. Martinâs Press, 1998.
Young, Barbara.
This Man from Lebanon
. New York: knopf, 1945.
Books by Kahlil Gibran
Gibran, Kahlil.
The Broken Wings
, trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New York:
Citadel Press, 1957.
-----------------.
A Tear and a Smile
, trans. H. M. Nahmad. New York: Knopf,
1972.
-----------------.
Spirits Rebellious
, trans. H.M. Nahmad, New York: Knopf,
1948.
-----------------.
Nymphs of the Valley
, trans. H.M. Nahmad, New York:
Knopf, 1948.
-----------------.
On Music, a Pamphlet
, New York: Al-Mohajer, 1905.
-----------------.
The Madmen: His Parables and Poems
, New York: Knopf,
1918.
-----------------. âThe Processionâ, trans. M.F. Kheirallah, New York: Arab-
American Press, 1947.
-----------------.
Twenty Drawings
, New York: Knopf, 1919.
-----------------.
The Forerunner: His Parables and Poems
, New York:
Knopf, 1920.
-----------------.
Sand and Foam
, New York, New York: Knopf, 1926.
-----------------.
The Prophet
, New York: Knopf, 2000.
-----------------.
Spiritual Sayings
, trans. Anthony R. Ferris, New York:
Citadel Press, 1962.
-----------------.
Jesus, the Son of Man
, New York: Knopf, 1928.
------------------.
The Earth Gods
, New York: Knopf, 1931.
-----------------.
The Wanderer: His Parables and Sayings
, New York:
Knopf, 1932.
------------------- .
The Garden of the Prophet
, New York: Knopf, 1933.
-------------------.
Lazarus and His Beloved and The Blind
, Philadelphia:
Westminster Press, 1981.
62
Anthologies
A Treasury of Kahlil Gibran
, ed. Martin L. Wolf and trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New
York: Citadel Press, 1951.
Secrets of the Heart
, trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New York: Philosophical Library,
1947.
Collection of Letters
A Self-Portrait
, trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New York: Citadel Press, 1959.
Beloved Prophet: The Love Letters of Kahlil Gibran and Mary Haskell
, ed.
Virginia Hilu, New York: Knopf, 1972.
Chapel Hill Papers
in the Southern Historical Collection, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1948.
Books by Ameen Rihani
Rihani, Ameen F.
The Luzumiyat of Abuâl-Ala
, New York: White, 1918.
-----------------.
The Qhatrains of Abuâl-Ala
, New York: Doubleday, 1903.
-----------------.
The Book of Khalid
, New York: Dodd, 1911.
-----------------.
A Chant of Mystics and Other Poems
, eds. S.B. Bushrui and J.M.
Munro, Beirut: Rihani, 1970.
---------------------.
The Path of Vision: Pocket Essays of East and West
. New York:
White, 1921.
--------------------.
Arabian Peak and Desert: Travels in Al-Yaman
, Boston:
Houghton, 1930.
-------------------.
Around the Coasts of Arabia
, Boston: Houghton, 1930.
------------------.
Ibn Saâoud of Arabia: His People and His Land
, Salisbury:
Documentary Publications, 1977.
Books by Mikhail Naimy
Naimy, Mikhail.
Kahlil Gibran: A Biography
. New York: Philosophical
Library, 1950.
-------------------.
Kahlil Gibran: A Biography
. Beirut: KHAYATS, 1964.
63
-------------------.
Al-Ghirbal
. (
The Sieve
). Egypt: Matbaâah al-Asriyah, 1932.
-------------------.
Memoirs of a Vagrant Soul or, The Pitted Face
. New York:
The
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Najjar, Nada. âThe Space in-between: The Ambivalence of Early Arab-American
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Shahid, Irfan. âThe Inaugural Farhat J. Ziadeh Distinguished Lecture in Arab and
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Rihani, Ameen A. âThe Gibran International Conference,â âSimilar Universal
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64
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Sana Mcharek received her B.A in English from the University of Letters,
Arts, and Humanities in Tunis, Tunisia. She was an ESOL high school teacher in
Zarzis, Tunisia for a period of one year after which obtained the Secondary
School Teaching Competence Certificate. Sana then moved to the United States
and pursued a Masterâs Degree in English Education in the Department of Middle
and Secondary Education at the Florida State University. During her stay at
FSU, she was a substitute teacher for the Leon County School District in Florida.