convert

1. Introduction

There are two main theories dealing with the abio-

genic formation of hydrocarbons in commercial quanti-
ties. The first is what may be called the Soviet or, as it
has more recently been designated, the Russian-
Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins
(Kenney, undated a). On this theory, petroleum is con-
sidered to be a primordial material which was erupted at
the surface of the Earth and is therefore not a fossil fuel.
According to its proponents, this theory is based upon
rigorous scientific analysis as well as upon extensive
geological observation and is consistent with the laws
of physics and chemistry. Its principal tenet is that the
generation of hydrocarbons must conform to the general
laws of chemical thermodynamics (Kenney undated a).

According to Kenney (undated a), the Soviet Union

was thought to have very limited petroleum reserves in
the aftermath of the Second World War and was essential-

ly denied access to the major oil fields of the world. To
overcome this problem, a Manhattan-type project was ini-
tiated in 1947 in order to determine the origins of petrole-
um and how petroleum reserves are generated in order to
establish the most effective strategies for petroleum explo-
ration. This led to the development of a new, innovative
theory of petroleum science within five years which was
said to have had major successes in the exploration of oil
reservoirs in the former Soviet Union. The principal
aspects of this theory were presented at the All-Union
Petroleum Geology Congress in 1951 by N. A.
Kudryavtsev (Kudryavtsev, 1951). As a result, this theo-
ry was at its most influential during the cold war and the
vast majority of the results were published in Russian.
This theory is therefore poorly known in the west.
However, this explanation is contrary to the facts. The
great oil fields of the Volga-Urals region, the northern
Urals and western Siberia were discovered during and
after the Great Patriotic War (early 1940s to middle

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, vol. 56, no. 1, 85–98, 2006

Review

Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview

Geoffrey P. G

LASBY

Laboratory for Earthquake Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033,
Japan [e-mail: g.p.glasby@talk21.com]
Contact address: 42, Warminster Crescent, Sheffield S8 9NW, U.K.
Received on October 6, 2005; accepted on October 26, 2005

Abstract: The two theories of abiogenic formation of hydrocarbons, the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petrole-
um origins and Thomas Gold's deep gas theory, have been considered in some detail. Whilst the Russian-Ukrainian theory
was portrayed as being scientifically rigorous in contrast to the biogenic theory which was thought to be littered with invalid
assumptions, this applies only to the formation of the higher hydrocarbons from methane in the upper mantle. In most other
aspects, in particular the influence of the oxidation state of the mantle on the abundance of methane, this rigour is lacking
especially when judged against modern criteria as opposed to the level of understanding in the 1950s to 1980s when this the-
ory was at its peak. Thomas Gold's theory involves degassing of methane from the mantle and the formation of higher hydro-
carbons from methane in the upper layers of the Earth's crust. However, formation of higher hydrocarbons in the upper lay-
ers of the Earth's crust occurs only as a result of Fischer-Tropsch-type reactions in the presence of hydrogen gas but is other-
wise not possible on thermodynamic grounds. This theory is therefore invalid. Both theories have been overtaken by the
increasingly sophisticated understanding of the modes of formation of hydrocarbon deposits in nature.

Keywords: abiogenic hydrocarbons, Russian-Ukrainian theory, Thomas Gold

The overwhelming preponderance of geological evidence compels the conclusion that crude oil and nat-

ural petroleum gas have no intrinsic connection with biological matter originating near the surface of the
Earth. They are primordial materials which have been erupted from great depths.

Academician Professor Vladimir B. Porfir'ev, senior petroleum exploration geologist for the

U.S.S.R., at the All-Union Conference on Petroleum and Petroleum Geology, Moscow, 1956.

I have gone to the best geologists and the best petroleum researchers, and I can give you the authoritative

answer: no one knows. Edward Teller on how living matter is converted into petroleum (Teller, 1979)

1950s). These fields were found not as a result of the the-
ories of the N. A. Kudryavtsev and V. P. Porfir'ev which
were too abstract and geologically too vague to be of
practical use but as a result of clear empirical relationships
which gave “the final word to the borehole”. On this
basis, the Soviet theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins
was never the driving force in the discovery of the major
oil fields in the Soviet Union as its proponents claim.

The second theory was developed by Thomas Gold

from 1979 to 1998. By way of background, Professor
Gold was born in Vienna in 1920 and educated at Cam-
bridge where he obtained his Ph.D. and was a close col-
league of Fred Hoyle with whom he had previously
worked on radar during the war (Bondi, 2004). He was
Professor of Astronomy at Cornell University and
Director of the Cornell Center for Radiophysics and
Space Research for 20 years. His deep gas theory is con-
troversial for a number of reasons, the principal one being
the strong suggestion that Professor Gold, a fluent reader
of Russian, took the ideas of Soviet scientists and used
them as the basis for his own theory without any attribu-
tion or acknowledgement, although he did cite Russian lit-
erature in some of his papers (Gold, 1985, 1987). This
assertion has been elaborated at length in a letter from
Professor V. A. Krayushkin of the Institute of Geological
Sciences in Kiev dated 4 January, 1990 (Kenney, undated
b). In particular, it is claimed that Professor Gold deliber-
ately modified the Russian-Ukrainian theory in order to
conceal its provenance and thereby introduced significant
errors into the theory (Kenney, undated b).

In considering these allegations, however, it should

be born in mind that Professor Gold was a distinguished
scientist in his own right as shown by his election as a
Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Furthermore, as
an astrophysicist, Professor Gold was well aware that
carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the uni-
verse and is present predominantly in the form of
hydrocarbons. In the solar system, for example, Gold
(1985, 1987) recognized that the greatest quantity of
hydrocarbons is present in the massive outer planets and
their satellites with huge amounts of methane present in
the extensive atmospheres of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune. It was therefore logical for him to write
that no special mechanism for the generation of hydro-
carbons on Earth needs to be invoked (Gold, 1993).

Although it seems more than probable that Professor

Gold was influenced by the work of Russian and
Ukrainian scientists, especially in his early papers, the
approach, examples and theoretical basis adopted in his
publications differ in many respects from those present-
ed by the Russian-Ukrainian school at that time. Whilst
Gold was undoubtedly cavalier in citing the Russian lit-
erature, it should be remembered that only one major
paper had been published in English on the Russian-

Ukrainian theory by a Soviet scientist prior to the 27th
International Geological Congress in Moscow in 1984
(Porfir'ev, 1974) and that this did not really coincide with
Gold’s interests. In addition, the idea that a scientist of
Gold’s calibre would deliberately modify a theory by
introducing significant errors and thereby present a flawed
theory in order to conceal its provenance seems implausi-
ble. In my opinion, it is more likely that Professor Gold’s
interest in the abiogenic formation of hydrocarbons was
seeded 30 years before at Cambridge under the influence
of the charismatic Fred Hoyle (see later). Gold was also
responsible for bringing Carl Sagan to Cornell in 1968
and could hardly fail to have been influenced by him.

Because Professor Gold's results were published in

English, his theory is much better known in the west than
the Russian-Ukrainian theory. In view of the significant
differences in the two theories, Professor Gold's theory is
presented separately from the Russian-Ukrainian theory.

2. The Russian-Ukrainian Theory

Amongst early Russian proponents of the inorganic

origin of hydrocarbon formation were Mendeleyev
(1877) who assumed that hydrocarbons were generated
within the Earth by interaction of water with iron car-
bide and Vernadsky (1933) who concluded that, with
increasing depth in the Earth’s crust, the oxygen content
would decrease to zero and the content of hydrogen
would increase leading to the formation of hydrocar-
bons at depth.

More than a thousand papers on the Russian-Ukrainian

theory have been published in Russian (Kenney, undated
b) but only a handful in English. This makes an assess-
ment of this theory by non-Russian speakers very difficult
because very few papers have been translated dealing
with the processes involved in petroleum formation and
migration at specific locations. It is therefore not easy to
get a feel for how the Russian-Ukrainian theory was used
to find commercial hydrocarbon deposits. However, two
papers by key protagonists of the biogenic and abiogenic
theories can be considered to compare the different atti-
tudes of western and Russian petroleum geologists at a
critical juncture.

In his paper, H. D. Hedberg (1969) offered an almost

encyclopaedic examination of the inorganic origin of
petroleum with many examples from the nineteenth cen-
tury. Unfortunately, the views of geologists from the
U.S.S.R. made up only the last two pages of this paper
and these consisted only of a translation of comments by
N. A. Eremenko which were essentially a rebuttal of the
inorganic theory as described by a number of leading sci-
entists such as N. A. Kudryavtsev, V. B. Porfir'ev and oth-
ers at the 1958 All-Union Conference on the Problem of

G. P. G

LASBY

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the Origin of the Petroleum held in Moscow. Eremenko's
main conclusion was that, while it is theoretically possible
to prove the formation of hydrocarbons by inorganic
means, the question remained unproved as to whether
oil, a very complex system of organic compounds, could
be formed from these hydrocarbons. Although this is fair
comment, this statement can not be taken to represent the
views of the leading proponents of the inorganic theory at
the 1958 conference. It is clear therefore that Hedberg's
paper did not give a fair hearing to the Russian-Ukrainian
theory, the leading theory on the abiogenic formation of
hydrocarbons at that time because of the impossibility of
translating a large body of information from Russian.

However, V. B. Porfir'ev (1974) was able to present an

overview of this theory in the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists Bulletin. This paper was divided
into two sections. The first dealt with the limitations of the
organic theory. In this, the author made a number of criti-
cal comments. In particular, he took exception to the idea
of source rocks for the formation of hydrocarbons but
based this on the assumption that these source rocks can
contain as little as a few thousands of a percent of organic
matter, thereby including all sedimentary rocks. Similarly,
he dismissed the idea of migration of petroleum from the
source area to the reservoir but assumed that the organic
matter must be first converted to a gas by metamorphism
or migrate as "micropetroleum". These comments were,
of course, made before modern theories on the migration
of fluids in the Earth's crust became known (e.g. Fyfe et
al., 1978). The author also questioned whether com-
pounds such as porphyrins could be considered to be indi-
cators of an organic origin of petroleum since these com-
pounds had already been found in meteorites and synthe-
sized abiogenically. Similarly, optical activity in some
crude oil compounds was not considered to be an indica-
tor of biogenic origin because optically active hydrocar-
bons had previously been synthesized from optically inac-
tive precursors at relatively low temperatures (130°C).
There was also serious doubt about whether the processes
of petroleum formation are permanent and have taken
place from the Proterozoic to the present. This would
imply a great age for some petroleum deposits indicating
that petroleum is extraordinarily stable and can preserve
all its properties for hundreds of millions of years. The
assumption that oil accumulations in crystalline and meta-
morphic basement rocks could be the result of secondary
migration of oil from nearby sedimentary rocks was also
firmly rejected. In particular, it was thought that the forces
controlling the migration of hydrocarbons were limited
with the possible exception of endogenic energy.

Porfir'ev (1974) then presented his case for the inorgan-

ic theory. The author began by emphasizing the link of the
inorganic theory to the mantle but pointed out that this
linkage is conditional because it is not possible to study

the mantle directly. Nonetheless, he proposed that the
original compounds for the formation of the petroleum
hydrocarbons under mantle conditions could be CO

and

, CO and H

O and CO

and H

O. It was claimed that

methane, naphthene and aromatic hydrocarbons similar to
those found in natural oil (but in different ratios) had been
obtained synthetically from CO

and H

and CO

and

O. However, as will be shown later, it is not possible to

produce hydrocarbons from either CO and H

O or CO

and H

O under mantle conditions on thermodynamic

grounds. The most convincing evidence for the inorganic
theory was considered to be the occurrence of commercial
quantities of oil in crystalline and metamorphic basement
rocks as outlined by Kudryavtsev (1959). The main prob-
lem was the mode of transport of the hydrocarbons from
the source rock to the reservoir. The solution to this prob-
lem was the proposed migration of mineralizing fluids
and hydrocarbons from the upper mantle to the Earth's
surface along deep faults. Within Russia, many giant ore
deposits and diamondiferous provinces are considered to
be controlled by mantle-derived magmatic products which
are most abundant in zones of high permeability of the
Earth's crust and are located mainly at the junctions of
rifts, grabens and faults (Anon, 2002). Such zones could
also serve for the migration of hydrocarbons. Examples of
deep faults bordering platform grabens include the
Limage graben in France, the Baykal and Barguzin
grabens in Siberia, the Dnieper-Donets graben in the
Ukraine, the Rhine graben in West Germany, the Suez in
Egypt, the Dead Sea in Jordan, the Reconcavo in Brazil,
the Fusin in China and many others. According to
Porfir'ev (1974), the genetic connection of gas and oil
deposits with the deep fault zones is so clear and well
known that documentation was not required! However,
this leaves the questions of exactly which hydrocarbons
were formed in the upper mantle, what transformations
were required to convert these precursor hydrocarbons
into oil and gas, how this oil ultimately became incorpo-
rated in reservoirs located in crystalline, or perhaps more
pertinently, in sedimentary rocks and the exact relation
between the reservoirs and the deep faults feeding them.

Porfir’ev (1974) also made the point that, in the inor-

ganic theory, the designation of the age of an oil as, for
example, "Cambrian", "Devonian", "Permian" or
"Cretaceous" does not imply that this is the actual age of
the deposit because more recently formed oil could have
migrated into an older reservoir. He then went on to con-
clude that all the oil fields on the Earth were formed by
vertical migration of the oil between the early Miocene
and late Quaternary without presenting any clear evidence
to support this statement. However, a clinching argument
against the organic theory was considered to be the occur-
rence of giant and supergiant oil fields such as the Ghawar
oil field in Saudi Arabia (11 billion tonnes) and the solid-

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Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview

G. P. G

LASBY

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petroleum-bitumen accumulations and asphalts located in
basal Palaeozoic beds in the southern Fergana area of
Soviet Central Asia (30 billion tonnes). In the case of the
asphalts, it was assumed the deposits must have been con-
verted into a gaseous or aqueous solution in order to be
transferred to the reservoir. According to Porfir'ev (1974),
this clearly demonstrated the role of inorganic petroleum
migration from the mantle along deep faults as the only
way to form these giant deposits. However, it should be
emphasized that many of the arguments on both sides of
this discussion could not be answered unequivocally at
that time because the necessary scientific methods had not
yet been developed to answer them. For example, the
question of source rocks could not be properly considered
until the development of gas chromatography/mass spec-
trometry (GC/MS) in the 1980's. As a result, much of the
discussion at that time was tangential. Neither side could
answer the questions posed by the other side unambigu-
ously.

Nonetheless, Porfir'ev (1974) did raise some key ques-

tions concerning the inorganic origin of hydrocarbons. In
particular, he cited work showing the occurrence of hydro-
carbon gases (CH

, C

and C

) and reduced

bitumens in alkaline mafic and ultramafic rocks in some
intrusive masses in the Kola Peninsula, the Russian plat-
form, the Urals and Siberia. In some cases, the geological
conditions of the hydrocarbon gases and the presence of
endogenic minerals in the cavities showed that these gases
formed by inorganic processes during cooling of the intru-
sive bodies. Bitumens enclosed in intrusive rocks from the
Khibiny massif on the Kola Peninsula were considered to
be unmetamorphosed because they contained the most
unstable paraffin hydrocarbons and could only have been
formed during the cooling period of the massif at tempera-
tures in the range 600-150°C. In California, oil shows
were found associated with serpentinites. The presence of
such complex molecules as isoprenoid hydrocarbons, por-
phyrins and amino acids in carbonaceous chondritic mete-
orites was also taken as unambiguous evidence of the
abiogenic formation of complex "organic" compounds. Of
particular importance here is the extremely perceptive
comment by Kropotkin et al. (1971) that ‘everything that
is known about the compositions of ultrabasic rocks,
meteorites, comets and planets suggests that sharply
reducing conditions are present in the Earth's deep layers.
The reducing agents present, such as free hydrogen,
metallic iron-nickel, and primary hydrocarbons, determine
the character of the physical medium which is most
important to the formation of hydrocarbon mixtures’. This
is the nub of the abiogenic theory. A key point is the role
of hydrogen generated by the Fischer-Tropsch reaction in
the formation of abiogenic hydrocarbons (Holm and
Charlou, 2001). However, the error in this statement, as
we shall see later, lies in the fact that the upper mantle is

too oxidizing to permit methane to be the dominant form
of carbon there. It is for this reason that commercial-grade
petroleum deposits could not have formed abiogenically.

The role of outgassing of hydrocarbons from the man-

tle along deep faults was also emphasized by Kropotkin
and Valyaev (1984) and Kropotkin (1985). In particular,
these authors took up Vernadsky's (1933) idea of a deep
origin of hydrogen which had been confirmed by the
demonstration of hydrogen seepages associated with heli-
um of mantle origin along deep faults in Iceland, the East
Pacific Rise and elsewhere. According to these authors,
the high content of hydrogen in petroleum indicated that
these compounds must have formed under strongly reduc-
ing conditions. It was also emphasized that hydrocarbons
and hydrogen predominate in the gas in fluid inclusions
which are dissipated in alkaline, basic and ultrabasic
igneous rocks including kimberlites. The role of free
hydrogen in the abiogenic formation of hydrocarbons has
subsequently been emphasized by a number of authors
(Bezmen, 1992; Apps and van der Kamp, 1993;
Marakhushev, 2000). Many examples were quoted in sup-
port the role of mantle degassing in the formation of
hydrocarbon deposits including the Kola Peninsula, the
Russian platform and the Siberian craton. The authors also
emphasized the importance of Kudryavtsev's rule which
states that, if oil or gas is present in any horizon of a suc-
cession, then some amounts of hydrocarbons should also
be discovered in all underlying units, even if only as tracks
of migration along the cracks or fissures in rocks
(Kudryavtsev, 1973). This regularity was taken to mean
that the crystalline basement is the source of petroleum in
the sedimentary cover and was taken as conclusive evi-
dence for the abiogenic theory. For example, the main oil
deposits in the Volga-Ural region were discovered below
the "domanik" beds of the Upper Devonian series rich in
biogenic organic matter. The petroleum deposits are asso-
ciated mainly with the variated sedimentary beds deposit-
ed under oxidizing conditions. The sediments rest on the
Precambrian crystalline basement, with some oil beds
lying almost on the basement surface.

Of particular importance are several papers coauthored

by J. F. Kenney which give a modern interpretation of the
abiogenic theory (Kenney, 1996; Kenney et al., 2001a, b,
2002; Krayushkin et al., 2001). Perhaps, the most signifi-
cant conclusion is that methane is the only hydrocarbon
stable at STP. Formation of normal alkanes from methane
is thermodynamically favourable only at pressures >30
kbar and temperatures >700°C which correspond to a
depth of ~100 km below the Earth's surface (equivalent to
the depth of the upper mantle) (Kenney et al., 2002). As a
result, higher hydrocarbons such as found in natural petro-
leum at the Earth's surface are metastable. By contrast,
formation of higher hydrocarbons from oxidized organic

molecules such as carbohydrates (C

) is not ther-

modynamically favourable under any conditions (Kenney
et al., 2002). These data demonstrate that it is possible to
convert methane into a complex mixture of higher alka-
nes and alkenes at high pressures and temperatures but
not carbohydrates, the fundamental building block of
plants. The rigorous thermodynamic analysis presented
by Kenney et al. (2002) forms the basis of the abiogenic
theory.

The success of the abiogenic theory can be seen by the

fact that more than 80 oil and gas fields in the Caspian
district have been explored and developed in crystalline
basement rock on the basis of this theory (Kenney, 1996).
According to this author, exploration in the western
Siberian cratonic rift sedimentary basin has led to the
development of 90 petroleum fields of which 80 produce
either partly or entirely from the crystalline basement.
Fifty commercial oil and gas fields have also been devel-
oped in a 100

600 km strip of the northern flank of the

Dneiper-Donets Basin. However, it should be emphasized
that 15 of the fields in the Dneiper-Donets Basin exploit
both Carboniferous sediments and lower crystalline base-
ment rocks but only 2 exploit the crystalline basement
exclusively (Krayushkin et al., 2001). Deep drilling has
also been carried out in Azerbaijan, Tatarstan and Siberia
to test the potential oil and gas reservoirs in the crystalline
basement (Kenney, 1996). According to Kenney (1996)
and Odell (2000, 2003, 2004), these considerations lead to
an important corollary, namely that hydrocarbons are
essentially a renewable resource and that there is no more
reason to expect a future shortage of petroleum than that
of, say, mid-oceanic ridge basalt. Nonetheless, in spite of
the recent efforts of J. F. Kenney and his colleagues, the
Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum ori-
gins remains poorly known in the west.

3. Thomas Gold's Theory

The deep gas theory of Thomas Gold evolved over

time. In his early papers, Gold was mainly concerned
with the role of major earthquakes in facilitating the
migration of gases, and in particular methane, from the
deep Earth (Gold, 1979, 1984, 1987; Gold and Soter,
1980, 1984/85). If an earthquake was large enough to
fracture the ground up to the Earth's surface, it was
assumed that it would open up an escape route for gas
and that this could generate some of the peculiar phe-
nomena accompanying major earthquakes such as flames
shooting from the ground, "earthquake lights" and sul-
furous air. In particular, Gold and Soter (1980) prepared
a map of the world showing the correlation between
major oil and gas regions and areas of present and past
seismicity from which it was apparent that many of the

known hydrocarbon reservoirs, including those in Alaska,
Texas, the Caribbean, Mexico, Venezuela, the Persian
Gulf, the Urals, Siberia, and Southeast Asia, lie on defor-
mation belts. This association of oil and gas fields with
earthquake-prone regions suggested that deep faults may
play a role in the continuous migration of methane and
other gases to the Earth's surface and therefore in the gen-
eration of these oil and gas fields.

Subsequently, Gold (1985, 1993) examined two

regions in more detail. In both the Middle East and in the
arc stretching from Indonesia thorough the Andaman
Islands into the Irrawaddi Valley of Burma and into the
high mountains of southern China, petroleum is very
abundant but there is no similarity in geology or topogra-
phy of these regions on a local scale. This suggested that
these oil-rich regions are defined by much larger scale
patterns than are seen in the surface geology and topogra-
phy and pointed to the role of deep faults in controlling
the locations of these oil and gas fields, especially along
the arc from Indonesia to southern China where the fre-
quency of earthquakes is hundreds of times higher than
away from the arc. The association of helium with hydro-
carbons in oil and gas fields was also taken as strong evi-
dence for a deep source of the hydrocarbons (Gold and
Held, 1987; Gold, 1993).

In these papers, it was assumed that mantle methane

was injected into the Earth’s crust in areas of crustal
weakness such as lithospheric plate boundaries, ancient
suture zones and meteor impact sites. Under conditions
of slow upward migration and cooling, some of the
methane was assumed to polymerize to form higher
hydrocarbons and crude oil (Jenden et al., 1993).
Although Gold (1985, 1987, 1999) was aware that
methane can be converted to higher hydrocarbons in the
mantle based on the experimental observations of
Chekaliuk (1976), he nonetheless considered methane
to be the principal hydrocarbon entering the Earth’s
crust from below. This led Gold (1993) to make the fun-
damental assumption that mantle-derived methane is
converted to higher hydrocarbons in the upper layers of
the Earth’s crust. In addition, Gold et al. (1986) pro-
posed that methane may be a transporting agent for
hydrocarbons to the Earth’s crust based on the experi-
mental observation that ethyl benzene and ethyl toluene
can form on reaction of benzene and toluene with
methane at 1000 atm and 150-250ºC in the presence of
montmorillonite, a natural clay catalyst. However, this
is not a major aspect of the deep gas theory.

More controversial was the drilling of the Siljan

Ring, a 360 Ma old impact crater with a diameter of 45
km, in central Sweden (Gold, 1987, 1991, 1993). This
project was undertaken at the initiative of Thomas Gold
(Gold, 1993) as a commercial venture to explore for
abiogenic gas of mantle origin (Castaño, 1993). Two

vol. 56, no. 1, 2006

Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview

holes were drilled, one 6.7 km deep and the other 6.5 km
deep. J. F. Kenney was the drilling manager for this pro-
ject. However, despite the great expense of this project, it
yielded only 80 barrels of oil of doubtful provenance.

Within the Gravberg-1 well, dolerite sills intrude the

granitic host rock. Gases in the dolerite were abundant,
rich in methane (200-1,000 ppm) and lacked unsaturat-
ed hydrocarbons whereas gases in the granite were poor
in methane (10-80 ppm) but contained much higher
proportions of ethane and propane and their unsaturated
analogues (Castaño, 1993). The gases in the dolerite were
considered to be abiogenic but the origin of the gases in
the granites was more problematic. It was thought that the
alkenes in these samples might have formed as a result of
a Fisher-Tropsch reaction between CO

and H

catalyzed

by magnetite in the granite (Castaño, 1993). If so, this
could explain the occurrence of the "black gunk" which
formed at a depth of about 5.5 to 6.7 km in the hole after
the drill string had been stuck there for several days and
consisted of 90 % fine-grained magnetite suspended in a
light oil of alkanes in the range C8 to C16 (Aldhous,
1991; Gold, 1993; Kenney, 1999). This would undermine
the assertion of these authors that this material was of
mantle origin. Based on his extensive studies at this site,
Castaño (1993) concluded that there was no convincing
evidence for a dominant mantle source of hydrocarbons at
Siljan nor any realistic prospects for the development of a
commercial gas field at this site.

Nonetheless, the discovery of this "black gunk" led

Gold (1992) to speculate that formation of this material
was bacterially mediated. This conclusion was based, in
part, on the fact that several strains of thermophilic bacte-
ria were cultured from this material. The upper limit of
temperature at which these bacteria could survive was
taken to be 110-150°C corresponding to a depth in the
Earth's crust of 5 to 10 km (Gold, 1992). This tempera-
ture is somewhat above the known tolerance range of
bacterial life but not unreasonably so (Holland and
Baross, 2003). Ourisson et al. (1984) had previously
identified hopanoids which are the remains of cell walls
of bacteria in several hundred samples of oil, coal and
kerogen and demonstrated that these compounds are
ubiquitous in sedimentary rocks. Based on the concentra-
tions of these compounds in sedimentary rocks, these
authors concluded that hopanoids are the most common
compounds on the Earth with a total abundance of 10

t compared to 10

t for the total mass of organisms

living at or near the surface of the Earth. This led to the
idea that some of the compounds used as biomarkers in
petroleum such as pristane and phytane may not, in fact,
be derived from chlorophyll as is commonly thought but
rather from the breakdown of bacterial residues. It was
the occurrence of this huge potential bacterial biomass in
the subsurface of the Earth that led Gold (1992) to define

the 'deep, hot biosphere' in which the energy required to
support this bacterial life was thought to be derived from
fluids rich in hydrogen and methane migrating upwards
from deeper levels in the Earth. Subsequently, these ideas
were refined in Gold’s (1999) book on this topic.

However, Drury (2000) cast doubt on Gold's asser-

tion that the deep biota outweigh the surface biomass.
In Gold's defence, it should be stated that his 1992
paper was published prior to Fyfe's (1996) landmark
paper on the deep biosphere and that this conclusion is
supported by recent estimates of the subsurface biomass
of prokaryotic bacteria of 3-5

g of C which is

equivalent to 60 to 100 % of the carbon present in the
global plant biomass (Whitman et al., 1998; Head et al.,
2003). Nonetheless, the relative roles of bacteria in
mediating in the formation of petroleum, in degrading
the initially formed petroleum to heavy oil and in sup-
plying biomarkers to hydrocarbon deposits are still not
fully understood, although it is well known that slow
anaerobic processes dominate in the deep subsurface
environment (Head et al., 2003) suggesting that degra-
dation dominates over mediation. Peters (1999) also
found many frustrating inconsistencies in his review of
Gold’s (1999) book. More recently, Laherrere (2004)
has made a detailed critique of Gold’s claims for the
formation of abiotic oil and pointed out many inconsis-
tencies and inaccuracies in this work.

In spite of Gold's prescient observations on the deep

biosphere, there remains some confusion regarding his
terminology. In their deep-earth-gas hypothesis, Gold
and Soter (1980) are referring to methane derived from
the deep Earth, presumably meaning the mantle. In his
discussion of the deep, hot biosphere, on the other hand,
Gold (1992, 1999) is referring to the upper 5 to 10 km
of the Earth crust. Deep therefore has two distinct
meanings in this theory depending on context.

However, there is a fundamental flaw in Thomas

Gold's theory of abiogenic petroleum formation. As pre-
viously pointed out, methane can only be converted to
higher hydrocarbons at pressures >30 kbar correspond-
ing to a depth of ~100 km below the Earth's surface.
The proposed reaction of methane to produce higher
hydrocarbons above this depth and, in particular, in the
upper layers of the Earth's crust is therefore not consis-
tent with the second law of thermodynamics.
Furthermore, bacteria can not catalyze thermodynami-
cally unfavourable reactions. Gold's deep gas theory in
which hydrocarbons are supposedly formed from
methane in the upper layers of the Earth's crust is there-
fore invalid.

4. Other Contributors

In addition to the two main theories for the abiogenic

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formation of hydrocarbons, there are a number of less
well-known contributors to this theory. In particular, A.
A. Giardini and C. E. Melton devised a method for cal-
culating the amount of juvenile hydrocarbons migrating
from the mantle in the last 700 Ma. Their calculations
were based on an initial observation that gaseous inclu-
sions in diamonds contain, in decreasing order of abun-
dance, water, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, car-
bon monoxide, nitrogen, argon, ethylene, ethyl alcohol,
butane and oxygen (Melton and Giardini, 1974). These
authors also determined the

C of CO

in an 8.65 ct.

diamond from Africa to be –35.2 ppt which is in the
range specified for natural petroleum (more negative
than –18 ppt; Giardini and Melton, 1982). On this basis,
they concluded that some carbonaceous material which
is considered to be biogenic in origin may, in fact, be
abiogenic (Giardini and Melton, 1981, 1982).

Based on the average amount of petroleum-type com-

pounds in 3.1 Ga old diamonds from Arkansas (33

-1

these authors then estimated the amounts of such com-
pounds in the uppermost 400 km of the mantle to be 2

t (Giardini and Melton, 1981). In order to calculate

the transport of hydrocarbons from the mantle to the
atmosphere, Giardini and Melton (1983) used hydrogen
as a proxy for the hydrocarbons on the basis that all
hydrogen can, in principle, be converted into hydrocar-
bons by Fischer-Tropsch-type reactions. Taking the old-
est known petroleum deposits to be 700 Ma and assum-
ing that the transport constant of hydrocarbons from the
mantle to the atmosphere is the same as for N2 (6.5

-1

), Giardini and Melton (1983) estimated that

18.9

t of juvenile petroleum has migrated from

the mantle to the Earth's surface over the last 700 Ma.
This amount is two orders of magnitude more than the
present global reserves of petroleum (143

Glasby, in press). However, this latter figure is a serious
underestimate of the total global oil inventory since
biodegraded oils occurring in heavy oil and tar sands
make up 50 % of the world's oil inventory and the
Venezuela and Athabasca Tar Sands alone contain 2.8

t of oil (Head et al., 2003).

Assuming that this juvenile petroleum was transported

to the Earth's surface by lithospheric faults with a total
length of 240,000 km and an average width of 0.01 km,
the amount of juvenile petroleum transported along these
faults was then calculated to be 93

t km

-2

-1

. This

compares with an average accumulation rate of petroleum
in 78 giant oil fields of 0.15

t km

-2

-1

. On this

basis, Giardini and Melton (1983) concluded that forma-
tion of these giant oil fields required on average only 0.2
% of the average outflow of juvenile petroleum precur-
sors. This led the authors to conclude that the juvenile
petroleum model easily accounts for all known petroleum
accumulations. However, these are clearly only order of

magnitude calculations and may be substantially in error,
particularly in the extrapolation of the concentrations of
hydrocarbons in fluid inclusions in a few diamonds to the
entire upper mantle and to a gross underestimation in the
total global oil inventory.

In Britain, there were several prominent proponents of

the abiogenic theory of hydrocarbon formation in the
1950's and 60's. In particular, Sir Fred Hoyle, one of the
leading British astronomers of his day, championed the
idea of chondritic material as the source of carbon in
petroleum. According to Hoyle (1955), the presence of
hydrocarbons in the bodies which formed the Earth would
have resulted in the interior of the Earth containing vastly
more oil than ever could have been produced by "decay-
ing fish" which he described as a "strange theory that has
been in vogue for many years". Based on the assumption
that the oil deposits were squeezed out of the interior of
the Earth, he concluded that the amount of oil still present
at great depths in the Earth vastly exceeds the compara-
tively tiny quantities that man has been able to recover so
far and considered the possibility of ever gaining access to
these vast supplies "an entertaining speculation".
However, these comments were only an aside to his main
interests. Subsequently, Hoyle became an advocate of the
panspermia theory which he argued that life on Earth was
seeded from outer space (Hoyle 1999). Indeed, he became
a leading authority on organic molecules in interstellar
space (http://www.panspermia.org). It seems more than
probable that Hoyle’s ideas had a significant influence on
his young contemporary at Cambridge, Thomas Gold.

Sir Robert Robinson, one of Britain's leading synthet-

ic organic chemists at this time, also noted that the com-
position of petroleum does not match that expected of
modified biogenic products and that the constituents of
ancient crude oils fit equally well with a primordial
hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been
added (Robinson, 1963, 1966). He therefore proposed a
duplex origin of petroleum in which biogenic processes
were dominant in the formation of younger oil but were
virtually absent in the formation of older crude oil.
However, this argument takes no account of the bacteri-
al degradation of oil over time (Head et al., 2003).
Furthermore, it overlooks the fact that petroleum is not
formed directly from plant material but from type II
kerogens which are derived from the low-temperature
diagenetic alteration of planktonic organisms (see later).

Following the lead of Russian proponents of the abio-

genic theory, Sylvester-Bradley and King (1963) and
Sylvester-Bradley (1964) described two types of heavy
hydrocarbons which they considered to be abiogenic. The
first was uraniferous pitchblende which is found in peg-
matites, granites, gneisses and was thought to be formed
by the polymerization of hydrocarbon gases by _-particles
emanating from uranium. The second type was so-called

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Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview

igneous hydrocarbons from a nepheline syenite complex
in the Kola Peninsula where heavier bitumens and all
grades of oil including natural gas are found. In this case,
it was believed that the hydrocarbons had formed by
hydrogenation of dispersed carbon or carbon dioxide dur-
ing crystallization of the magma. Ikorsky et al. (1999)
subsequently reported the presence of CH

, N

, H

, He,

, C

and C

, in decreasing order of abundance,

in Proterozoic and Archean complexes in the Kola
Peninsula during drilling of the Kola Superdeep Borehole.
These authors concluded that these hydrocarbons are bio-
genic in origin and were derived from sedimentary rocks
which had been metamorphosed to greenschist facies.
However, this view is in contradiction to earlier studies
which showed that these gases are present only in alkaline
rocks of the Khibiny, Lovozero and Salmagory massifs of
the Kola Peninsula (Porfir’ev, 1974) and is supported by
the high H2 content of this gas (20.6 % by volume in a
representative gas sample; Ikorsky et al., 1999).

Sylvester-Bradley and King (1963) and Sylvester-

Bradley (1964) also pointed out the frequent association
of bitumen with cinnabar. This association was subse-
quently attributed to degassing of mercury and associate
volatiles from the mantle (Ozerova et al., 1999). These
findings led Sylvester-Bradley (1964) to conclude that
oil is polygenetic but this poses the question of how
much oil is biogenic and how much is derived from
other sources and, perhaps more pertinently, other pos-
sible mechanisms for the abiogenic formation of oil.

5. Discussion

In the previous sections, the abiogenic theory of

hydrocarbon has been outlined. As already stated, the
proponents of this theory claim that it is based upon rig-
orous scientific reasoning, consistent with the laws of
physics and chemistry, as well as upon extensive geo-
logical observation. The question is to what extent this
is true. Certainly, the arguments presented by Kenney et
al. (2002) do represent a rigorous interpretation of the
thermodynamic data. However, the formation of higher
hydrocarbons from methane in the upper mantle is only
one link in the chain of petroleum formation.

Perhaps the clearest argument against the abiogenic

theory is the oxidation state of the mantle. Whilst it is
true that the mantle is the major reservoir for carbon on
the Earth (Wood et al., 1996), it is equally true that the
upper mantle is moderately oxidizing (Kadik, 2003).
According to Wood et al. (1990), the mantle beneath
active subduction zones is much more oxidizing than
that beneath mid-ocean ridges. Although peridotites
from mid-ocean ridges are reduced with an average f

of –0.9 log units relative to the FMQ (fayalite-mag-

netite-quartz) buffer, CO

and H

O are the major fluid

species present even there (Wood et al., 1990). The
dominant forms of carbon in the upper mantle are dia-
monds and carbonate (Wood et al.. 1996). Methane is
considered to be only a minor constituent in fluid inclu-
sions from upper mantle based on its paucity in fluid
inclusions from upper mantle rocks (Roedder, 1984;
Apps and van der Kamp, 1993). In contrast, large
amounts of CO

appear to be degassing from the mantle

(Javoy et al., 1982; Sano and Williams, 1996). Equally
crucial is the observation of Apps and van der Kamp
(1993) that the only mechanism by which volatile gases
can be transferred from the mantle to the Earth’s surface
is through magma transport. Although Gold (1985,
1987) was aware that carbon was generally assumed to
migrate from depth as CO

, he believed that, if the

gases migrated through cracks in solid rock, oxidation
of the methane would be limited.

Furthermore, on the basis of the abiogenic theory, it

would be expected that abiogenic hydrocarbons would be
located principally at convergent plate margins and along
major fault zones (Gold and Soter, 1980). However, as
shown by Klemme (1975), high geothermal gradients in
clastic rock sequences located near plate boundaries
enhance the formation, migration and entrapment of oil
and gas. Glasby et al. (2004) have subsequently argued
that it is these high geothermal gradients rather than
proximity to faults which most probably accounts for the
formation of the Niigata and Akita oil fields of northern
Honshu, Japan, for example.

In addition, the abiogenic theory lays particular empha-

sis on the discovery of major oil and gas fields in crys-
talline basement rocks such as in the Caspian district, the
western Siberian cratonic rift sedimentary basin and the
northern flank of the Dnieper-Donets Basin which is con-
sidered to be incompatible with the biogenic theory
(Porfir'ev, 1974; Kenney, 1996). However, this view does
not take into account modern theories of fluid migration
in the Earth's crust (Bredehoeft and Norton, 1990;
Dahlberg, 1994; Lerch and Thomsen, 1994; Parnell,
1994) or of the permeability of crystalline rocks
(Batchelor and Gutmanis, 2002). For example, Wang and
Davies (2003) have shown that the permeability of rocks
is a property that depends on scale with actual permeabili-
ties orders of magnitude higher than those determined by
direct measurements made on boreholes. Incorporation of
hydrocarbons into crystalline rocks is therefore not
uncommon and is a function of these enhanced permeabil-
ities. According to Petford and McCaffrey (2002), some
of these reservoirs are very prolific. Although most hydro-
carbons associated with igneous rocks are derived from
maturation of organic-rich sediments (Schutter, 2002),
examples of the occurrence of abiogenically-derived

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hydrocarbons have been recorded in this type of rock.

The U.S. Geological Survey has recently undertaken

a series of detailed studies of the petroleum geology and
resources of two of the areas mentioned above, the
Middle and North Caspian Basins (Ulmishek, 2001a, b)
and the Dnieper-Donets Basin (Ulmishek, 2001c). In
the Middle Caspian Basin, source rocks were not posi-
tively identified but were thought to be alternating
shales, carbonates and tuffs of upper Olenekian-Middle
Triassic age (Ulmishek, 2001a). In the North Caspian
Basin, the source rocks were thought to be basinal black
shales of upper Palaeozoic age (Ulmishek, 2001b). In
the Dnieper-Donets Basin, geological data indicated the
presence of two principal source rocks, the Lower
Carboniferous marine shales and Devonian siliceous
shales and carbonates (Ulmishek, 2001c). In a large
part of this basin, the source rocks occur at a great depth
and have not yet been drilled. In spite of the incomplete
knowledge of the source rocks in these three areas,
petroleum formation was interpreted entirely and con-
vincingly within the framework of conventional petrole-
um geology with no mention made of an abiogenic
source of hydrocarbons. If the biogenic origin of these
key deposits were to be confirmed, it would essentially
mark the end of the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep,
abiotic petroleum origins as a viable theory.

Many articles have been published in the Russian jour-

nal, Petroleum Geology, on the geology of the Caspian,
western Siberian and Dnieper-Donets oil fields and
English abstracts posted on the internet (http://www.geoc-
ities.com/internetgeology). However, no reference has
been made to the abiogenic theory of hydrocarbon forma-
tion in any of these articles. This would suggest that the
abiogenic theory has much more limited support in Russia
and the Ukraine now than in Soviet times, particularly
with respect to the commercial exploration for oil and gas.

The abiogenic theory is, of course, bolstered by the

occurrence of hydrocarbons which clearly have an abio-
genic origin. For example, over 70 carbon-bearing radi-
cals and ions and organic compounds have been identi-
fied in dense interstellar gas and dust clouds which have
temperatures in the range 10-100°K (Lewis, 1995). In
addition, complex organic compounds can be synthesized
on very short time scales (10

years) in the low-density

circum-stellar environment during the late stages of stel-
lar evolution (Kwok, 2004). Within the solar system, at
least 80 organic compounds are known to occur in car-
bonaceous meteorites (Lewis, 1995). However, calcula-
tions suggest that far more organics would have been
delivered to the surface of the Earth by interplanetary
dust particles than from meteorites and that these organic
compounds may have constituted, in part, the prebiotic
organic molecules from which life on the Earth eventual-

ly emerged (Chyba and Sagan, 1992).

Serpentinization of ultramafic rocks near the crest of

mid-ocean ridges may also lead to the formation of higher
hydrocarbons containing between 16 and 29 carbon atoms
(Holm and Charlou, 2001). Abiogenic methane and
hydrogen also occur in significant quantities in mines in
the crystalline rocks of the Canadian and Fennoscandian
shields (Apps and van der Kamp, 1993; Sherwood Lollar
et al., 2002). These gases were thought to be generated by
hydrolysis from meteoric waters circulating through frac-
tures in mafic and graphitic igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Up to 30

t) of methane can be

generated from a single giant quartz vein by this mecha-
nism (Burruss, 1993). Although these processes may be
important locally, Apps and van der Kamp (1993) con-
cluded that commercial hydrocarbon deposits appear to be
exclusively biogenic in origin except possibly in the case
of deposits associated with serpentinization.

If petroleum hydrocarbons and natural gas are the

result of degassing from the mantle, then it follows that
the amounts of petroleum available could be orders of
magnitude larger than presently estimated (Gold, 1985,
1986, 1987, 1993). The abiogenic theory therefore chal-
lenges present assumptions regarding the resource
potential of hydrocarbons (Kenney, 1996). Evidence for
the vertical migration of hydrocarbons or 'dynamic fluid
injection' has been reported in the western Gulf of
Mexico and is considered to occur worldwide (Whelan,
2000; Whelan et al., 2001). This view is supported by
L. M. Cathles of Cornell University who views the Gulf
as a giant hydrocarbon flow-through system which is
currently active (Pinsker, 2003). However, a recent
study in the northern Gulf of Mexico has shown that
most of the large volume of gas venting there is bio-
genic or thermogenic in origin (Whelan et al., 2005).
Gas washing of reservoir oils is believed to carry the
most volatile components of the oil upwards and vent
them into the overlying seawater. These observations do
not support an abiogenic origin of gas in this area. In
addition, Pfeiffer (2005) has concluded that refilling of
the reservoir at Eugene Island in the Gulf of Mexico is
minor based on production statistics and that production
there is in decline. Pfeiffer (2005) therefore asked the
rhetorical question ‘Where is all the abiotic oil if it
exists?’ After considering a number of possibilities
including the Siljan Ring, offshore Vietnam, Eugene
Island in the Gulf of Mexico and the Dnieper-Donets
Basin, he was unable to cite any example of the occur-
rence of abiotic oil in commercial quantities.

As previously noted, proponents of the abiogenic the-

ory have put particular emphasis on disputing the valid-
ity of the biogenic theory (Porfir’ev, 1974). Kenney et
al. (2001b), for example, have raised doubts about the

vol. 56, no. 1, 2006

Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview

possible use of biomarkers such as porphyrins, iso-
prenoids, pristane, phytane, cholestane, terpanes and
chlorins to support a biogenic origin of petroleum.
Pristane and phytane were considered to be simply
branched alkanes of the isoprenoid class. Cholestane
and cholesterol were considered to have similar organic
structures but cholestane is a highly reduced hydrocar-
bon whereas cholesterol is a highly oxidized organic
molecule. The occurrence of porphyrins, isoprenoids,
terpanes and chlorins in meteorites was taken as evi-
dence to discredit the use of these molecules as bio-
markers. However, the development of gas chromatog-
raphy/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in the 1980s vastly
increased knowledge of the breakdown products of bio-
markers and enabled much more precise correlations to
be made between biomarkers in the source rocks and in
petroleum reservoirs (Peters and Moldowan, 1993;
Eglington, 2004; Philp, 2004). Kenney et al. (2001b)
also noted that petroleum contains Ni and V porphyrins
which can not be derived from chlorophyll in which Mg
is the centrally chelated metal. However, it is now well
known that these porphyrins were formed not from
chlorophyll but from marine organisms in which the
porphyrins are chelated around Ni and V (Yen, 1975;
Berner, 2003). This is consistent with the formation of
petroleum hydrocarbons from marine shales.

A particularly contentious issue in this regard is

whether higher hydrocarbons can be formed from oxi-
dized organic molecules such as carbohydrates (C

)

which are the dominant constituents of plants. As noted
earlier, formation of higher hydrocarbons from oxidized
organic molecules such as carbohydrates (C

) is

not thermodynamically favourable under any conditions
(Kenney et al., 2002). However, only 0.01-0.1 % of
organic matter enters the biological carbon cycle
(Schaefer, 1999). Petroleum is therefore not formed
directly from plant material but mainly from type II
kerogens which are derived from the low-temperature
(<50°C) diagenesis of planktonic organisms and are
rich in hydrogen and poor in oxygen (Tissot and Welte,
1984; Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; Schaefer, 1999;
Berner, 2003). This is consistent with the formation of
petroleum hydrocarbons from marine shales.

In addition to biomarkers, the carbon and hydrogen iso-

topic ratios of methane can be used to characterize natural
gases (Schoell, 1983; Jenden et al., 1993; Wiese and
Kvenvolden, 1993). In particular, Jenden et al. (1993)
showed a clear distinction between the

C values of

abiogenic methane from submarine hydrothermal vents
on the East Pacific Rise, fluid inclusions in alkaline
igneous rocks from the Kola Peninsula, Russia, and the
Zambales Ophiolite in the Philippines (-18 to -1 permil)
and those of 1699 commercial gases (more negative than

-20 permil). These data led these authors to conclude that
that less than 1 % of the methane in most oil and gas
fields is abiogenic in origin. In a more detailed analysis,
Sherwood Lollar et al. (2002) confirmed this conclusion
based on a comparison between the carbon and hydrogen
isotopic compositions of abiogenic methane and higher
hydrocarbons in crystalline rocks from the Canadian
Shield and the isotopic compositions of thermogenic
hydrocarbons. This observation led these authors to rule
out the presence of a globally significant abiogenic source
of hydrocarbons. Hayes et al. (1990) also used carbon iso-
topic analysis of individual organic compounds to demon-
strate that biomarkers such as porphyrins and geolipids
are derived from biological precursor molecules. This
approach enabled the isotopic compositions of individual
compounds to be interpreted in terms of the biochemical
processes taking place in ancient depositional environ-
ments. Jonathan Clarke, an Australian astrobiologist and
geologist, has recently presented a checklist of 16 obser-
vations which must be explained by the abiotic hypothesis
before it can be accepted (Bardi and Pfeiffer, 2005).
Based on these criteria, it becomes difficult to support the
abiotic origin of hydrocarbons.

In fact, 90 % of the world’s original oil and gas

reserves are located in six stratigraphic intervals during
the Phanerozoic which include the Silurian (9 % of world
reserves), Upper Devonian-Tournaisian (8 % of reserves),
Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian (8 % of reserves), Upper
Jurassic (25 % of reserves) Middle Cretaceous (29 % of
reserves) and Oligocene (12.5% of reserves) (Klemme
and Ulmishek, 1991). These data show that the majority
of the world’s oil and gas is very young with 50 % gener-
ated since the Oligocene. Burial of global organic carbon
during this period corresponds closely to the deposition of
major source rocks for oil and gas (Berner, 2003).
However, these time intervals also appear to be closely
related to the cyclic eruption of hot plumes from the low-
ermost mantle which leads to a correlation between eusta-
tic sea-level highstands and the deposition of marine black
shales (Sheridan, 1997). Of particular interest is the sug-
gestion that the high global organic carbon burial during
the middle Cretaceous was a consequence of the mid-
Cretaceous superplume (Larson, 1991a) which created a
greenhouse world without ice-caps, sea level a hundred
metres and more higher than at present at times, extensive
continental flooding, deposition of black shales and oil
formation (Caldeira and Rampino, 1991; Larson, 1991b).
However, this superplume was characterized by high
emissions of CO

rather than methane (Caldeira and

Rampino, 1991). It seems more probable therefore that
the formation of the major oil and gas reserves at that time
was related to the deposition of suitable source rocks as a
result of high carbon burial rates rather than to the

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degassing of methane from the mantle. According to
Klemme (1994), the presence of a source rock is a
requirement for all petroleum systems. The abiogenic
theory, on the other hand, would lead us to expect that
the formation of oil and gas is independent of source
rock formation and therefore much more extensive in
the Precambrian and Proterozoic than is the case.

Finally, it is worth emphasizing that only one of the 16

papers presented by Soviet scientists during the oil and
gas session of the 27th International Geological Congress
held in Moscow in 1984 specifically dealt with or men-
tioned the abiogenic theory of hydrocarbon formation
(Kropotkin and Valyaev, 1984). Kudryavtsev’s (1959)
book on oil, gas and solid bitumen in igneous and meta-
morphic rocks was also subject to a withering review by
Teodorovich (1962) in which the author’s assumptions
were questioned in great detail. Since N. A. Kudryavtsev
was the first to formulate the abiogenic theory in 1951
(see earlier), this represents severe criticism indeed.
These observations strongly suggest that support for the
abiogenic theory within the Soviet Union may not have
been as total as its proponents would like to suggest even
at this high water mark.

6. Summary

The preceding sections have outlined the two princi-

pal theories of abiogenic formation of petroleum hydro-
carbons. The Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic
petroleum origins was an attempt to formulate a scien-
tifically rigorous theory of hydrocarbon formation
which could play a major role in the exploration and
exploitation of hydrocarbon deposits in the Soviet
Union in the immediate post-war period. The theory is
rigorous in its interpretation of the thermodynamic data
for the conversion of methane to higher hydrocarbons at
high temperatures and pressures. However, the forma-
tion of higher hydrocarbons from methane is only one
step in the complex chain leading to the formation of
commercial petroleum deposits and there are several
major objections to this theory. First and foremost is the
fact that the mantle is too oxidizing for methane to form
there in abundance. Furthermore, most volatiles including
methane are transported from the mantle to the Earth’s
crust in magma and not by faults as required by the theo-
ry. The occurrence of major oil and gas fields in crys-
talline basement rocks was also taken as confirmation of
the abiogenic theory. However, this assumption predates
modern theories of fluid migration in the Earth's crust.
The theory also identified a number of mechanisms by
which higher hydrocarbons can be formed abiogenically,
of which serpentinization of ultramafic rocks does have
the potential to produce commercial oil and gas fields.

Proponents of the abiogenic theory have also emphasized
perceived inadequacies of the biogenic theory for the for-
mation of petroleum hydrocarbons.

However, at the time that the abiogenic theory was at

its peak from the 1950s to the 1980s, it was not possible
to assess the relative merits of these two theories objec-
tively on the basis of the then existing scientific data
and this only became possible with the development of
much more sophisticated techniques for the analysis of
the organic constituents in petroleum such as GC/MS in
the 1980s. As a result, a much more detailed under-
standing of the pathways of organic constituents from
source rocks to petroleum was established which
offered convincing evidence to support the biogenic
theory. By contrast, the abiogenic theory made no real
attempt to explain the formation of the very complex
mixture of organic compounds which make up oil.

A major claim of the Russian-Ukrainian theory of abio-

genic hydrocarbon formation is that it had major success-
es in the discovery of oil and gas deposits in crystalline
basement rocks. However, it now appears that the great
oil fields of the Volga-Urals region, the northern Urals
and western Siberia were discovered not as a result of
application of this theory as its proponents claim but by
the use of conventional exploration methods which gave
“the final word to the borehole”. Furthermore, recent stud-
ies of the petroleum resources of the Dnieper-Donets
Basin in the Ukraine by the U.S. Geological Survey have
been interpreted entirely within the framework of conven-
tional petroleum geology with no mention made of an
abiogenic source of hydrocarbons. These failures of the
Russian-Ukrainian theory in areas where it has claimed its
greatest successes essentially bring its role as a viable the-
ory on which to base exploration programmes for com-
mercial hydrocarbon deposits to an end. As a matter of
fact, this theory is now largely forgotten even in the
Former Soviet Union and virtually unknown in the west.

The deep gas theory of Thomas Gold is based on the

assumption that deep faults play the dominant role in
the continuous migration of methane and other gases to
the Earth's surface and that this methane is then con-
verted into oil and gas in the upper layers of the Earth’s
crust. However, this reaction is not thermodynamically
favourable under these conditions and can not be facili-
tated by the presence of bacteria. In addition, deep
drilling of the Siljan Ring did not offer any convincing
evidence for a dominant mantle source for hydrocarbon
formation there. This theory is therefore invalid.
Acknowledgements: I first heard about the abiogenic the-
ory of hydrocarbon formation at a lecture by Dr. V. A.
Alekseev of the Institute of High Pressure Physics,
Moscow, in April 2002 in St. Petersburg, Russia. As a
chemist, I found this theory fascinating. In conjunction

vol. 56, no. 1, 2006

Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview

with Japanese colleagues, we tested this theory in respect
to the formation of oil and gas deposits in the Niigata and
Akita basins in northern Honshu, Japan, with mixed
results (Glasby et al., 2004). Writing this paper was facili-
tated by access to the world class library facilities at the
University of Tokyo and the Geological Survey of Japan.
I thank Professor K. Notsu for his hospitality in Tokyo. I
also thank Academician L. I. Krasny (VSEGEI, St.
Petersburg), Professor V. N. Morakhovsky (St. Petersburg
Mining Institute), Professor N. Suzuki (University of
Hokkaido), Dr. J. Yamamoto (Institute of Geothermal
Sciences, Beppu) and Dr. T. Yamanaka (Kyushu
University) for interesting and helpful discussions. I am
particularly indebted to Dr. I. M. Varentsov (Geological
Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow) for his
informed comments on the early development of the
Soviet abiogenic theory.

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