THE THIRD DALLAS INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON THE SHROUD OF TURIN: DALLAS, TEXAS, SEPTEMBER 8-11, 2005
1
BODY IMAGE FORMATION HYPOTHESES
BASED ON CORONA DISCHARGE
Giulio Fanti
1
, Francesco Lattarulo
2
, Oswald Scheuermann
3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Padua,
Via Venezia 1, 35137 Padua - Italy, e-mail: <giulio.fanti@unipd.it>
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Polytechnic of Bari
via Orabona, 4 - 70125 Bari – Italy, e-mail <lattarulo@deemail.poliba.it>
3
Am Neubruch 25, 90571 Schwaig-Behringersdorf, Germany
SUMMARY
The present paper proposes two possible hypotheses of the body image formation of the Turin
Shroud (TS) based on corona discharge (CD). An impression mechanism based on CD proves to be
the most credible one after verifying that some characteristics of the TS image are not in full
agreement with the hypothesis of a simple burst of light proposed by K. Moran and G. Fanti in
2002.
Theoretical and experimental results relative to plasma in the air are presented and discussed on
the basis of a comparison with data relative to the TS both at macroscopic and microscopic levels.
Even if the environmental hypotheses relative to CD can be refined, the experimental results
obtained show no appreciable chemical-physical differences from the image features of the TS.
1) INTRODUCTION
The Turin Shroud (TS) is a 4.4 m long and 1.1 m wide linen sheet that wrapped the corpse of a
scourged, thorn-crowned man who was stabbed in the side with a lance and crucified (Jumper 1984,
Adler 1996). There are also many marks caused by blood, fire, water and folding impressed on the
sheet that partially cancel the double body image (front and back) indelibly impressed. The wounds
are what interest forensic pathologists most because they would be very difficult to produce.
The body image is extremely superficial, but in some areas of the frontal image, such as those of
the face and perhaps the hands, it is superficial on both sides (Fanti 2004). This means that,
considering the thickness of the fabric where the image of the face is, there is a very superficial
image on the top and one on the bottom, but nothing in the middle; the top and bottom images
correspond in both shape and position.
The TS is believed by many to be the burial cloth Jesus Christ was wrapped in before being
placed in a tomb in Palestine about 2000 years ago. It is the most important relic of Christianity and
has generated more controversy than any other religious relic.
Scientific interest in the TS developed after 1898, when S. Pia, who photographed it, noticed that
the negative image on the TS looked like a photographic positive. In 1931, G. Enrie photographed
the TS at high resolution using an orthochromatic plate. In this photograph, the TS body image
looks like a photographic negative, and its luminance levels can be related to the 3D image of a
human body. The bloodstains are of human blood, transposed to the linen fabric by fibrinolysis
(Adler 1996).
A scientific analysis of the TS in 1978 by the STURP (Shroud of TUrin Research Project)
(Jackson 1984, Jumper et al. 1984, Adler 1996), found no scientific exp lanations for the body image
on the TS. One attempt at explanation states that the image formed as if it were caused by exposure
to a short-lived but intense source of energy coming from the body enveloped in the TS itself.
Many hypotheses and experimental tests have been carried out on linen fabrics to explain the
formation of the body image, but for the moment no exhaustive solution has been found. The
hypothesis of a source of radiation from inside the enveloped body has a large consensus even if
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some points must be still be demonstrated. Although good experimental results have been obtained
on the basis of other hypotheses, all these proposals are unable to describe all of the characteristics
of the body image listed (Fanti et al. 2005).
In 1983, O. Scheuermann proposed a possible body image formation mechanism based on CD
and obtained some interesting experimental results, but his studies were interrupted because of the
1988 radiocarbon results. In 1984, I. Bensen proposed ball lightening as the source of energy for the
body image formation. In 1985, R. Morgan reported a hypothesis of image formation by means of
corona discharge made by G. Coote who proposed the piezoelectric effect of quartziferous rock
subjected to earthquake as the source of an electrostatic field. In 1986, J.B. Judica Cordiglia
obtained some images on linen samples using an electrostatic technique. In 1997, E. Lindner
proposed an electron source as the cause of the body image formation. In 1998 F. Lattarulo
theoretically proposed a hypothesis of image formation based on CD generated by an outer source
and in 2000, G. De Liso obtained some images on linen cloths during earthquakes, but these wo rks
were not broadly considered.
A CD is an electrical discharge (Chen J., 2002) brought on by the ionization of a fluid
surrounding a conductor, which occurs when the potential gradient exceeds a threshold, in
situations where sparking is not favored. In a CD, a current develops between two high- voltage
electrodes in a dielectric fluid, usually air, by ionizing the fluid so as to generate a plasma (which is
the fourth state of matter beyond solid, liquid and gas) around one electrode. This leads to the
collection of electrons and ions made by stripping the electrons from atoms and electronic emission
from the negatively polarized electrode. The ions generated are used as the charge carriers to the
other electrode. CD usually involves two asymmetric electrodes, one highly curved (emitter,
injector or active conductor) and one of low curvature (collector). CD may be positive (if the
emitter is positive) or negative, but the relative physics are different as a result of the difference in
mass between electrons and positively charged ions. A neutral atom in a fluid, which is a region
subject to a strong electric field, can be ionized by an exogenous environmental event, resulting
from, for example, a photon interaction that generates a positive ion and an electron. The strong
field then separates these charged particles and accelerates them. Additional electron and positive-
ion pairs are then generated by collision causing a chain- reaction or electron avalanche. An ion
species generated in this series of avalanches is attracted to the less curved electrode, completing
the circuit, and maintaining the current flow. During a CD, blue/white glowing can often be seen
because most of the emissions are in the UV (Ultra Violet) range. A negative CD happens in a non-
uniform corona and generally has less energy than a positive CD, but the electron density is greater.
CD has applications, for example, in photocopying or ozone and NOx manufacturing and is
generally avoided in electric power transmission, where it is sometimes called Partial Discharge,
owing to the loss of power in corona processes audible noise and electromagnetic interference.
In the present paper first a brief discussion of the limits regarding different hypotheses on body
image formation is discussed. Then the evidence that lead us to maintain that CD is a mechanism of
image formation is described showing how CD satisfies all the facts listed in Fanti et al. (2005). The
CD hypotheses are then supported with experimental, numerical and theoretical results. A
description of the more favorable exogenous environmental factors that cause CD, in alternative to
a supernatural inner source, is made with reference to the geological conditions in Palestine.
2) CRITICAL REVIEW OF PAST WORKS AND HYPOTHESES
Perhaps the greatest challenge for TS investigators is explaining how the body image was
formed. Some researchers have hypothesized that an artist produced the image artificially by
different means. However, G. Fanti et al. (2005) stated that, among other important facts, the image
color resides only on the topmost fibers at the highest parts of the weave ; this color resides on the
thin impurity layer of the outer surfaces of the fibers while the medullas cellulose of the fibers in the
image areas is colorless. Furthermore, the frontal image, at least the part corresponding to the head,
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is doubly superficial. Presently, no tested artists’ works are able to show these peculiar
characteristics.
A diffusion mechanism has been suggested by many researchers, such as R. Rogers (2002) who
proposed that the body image is the result of a chemical reaction of the decomposition gases of the
corpse with the linen cloth. However, this is inconsistent with some of the characteristics discussed
by G. Fanti et al. (2005) who reported that the body image shows no evidence of putrefaction signs,
in particular around the lips, and that there is no evidence of tissue breakdown (i.e. the formation of
liquid decomposition products of a body). In addition, the resolution of the body image of 4.9±0.5
mm (G. Fanti, September 2005) has not yet been reached experimentally using a diffusion technique.
A direct contact has been proposed by many researchers, such as J. Volkringer (1991) and A.
Mills (1995), but this hypothesis is inconsistent with some of the characteristics given by G. Fanti
et al. (2005), such as the fact that a body image is visible even in the body-sheet non-contact zones
such those between the nose and cheek.
Some researchers, such as J. De Salvo (1982), proposed the hypothesis that many mechanisms
affect the body image formation. It has also been suggested that a diffusion mechanism can act in
parallel with direct contact and perhaps also with radiation. In the experience of the authors, a
solution to a problem that is not well understood can be reached assuming the presence of many
different causes acting together, but frequent ly this solution hides the inability to reach the essence
of the problem. Therefore, by applying the Occam’s razor principle of minimum assumption, the
situation both needs to be simplified and selected facts highlighted.
In order to explain all the characteristics discussed in G. Fanti et al. (2005) there would have to
be a radiation source coming from the enveloped body, as previously proposed by many
researchers. For example, a nuclear irradiation was proposed by J. B. Rinaudo (1998) and J. Jackson
(1990) suggested the image was caused by soft UV radiation generated by a corpse that had become
mechanically transparent. Nevertheless, these hypotheses are based on some facts that are not
scientifically reproducible. G. Fanti with K. Moran (2002) as well were inclined to think that there
was “…
radiation, perhaps of light, coming from the wrapped corpse,
†also because this would
account for “…
the fact that a body image is present where no body-cloth contact can be
supposed
â€. However, later studies showed that the best way to agree with all the very particular
characteristics of the body image is to consider not a common radiation source such as light, but a
unidirectional radiation connected with the CD hypothesis. This conclusion was principally reached
after the analysis of the following evidence in favor of a CD hypothesis.
Figure 1. Hair disposition if a man (O. Scheuermann) is in contact with high-voltage
electrostatic field produced by a Van de Graaff generator.
-1) The TS image of the hair (including the beard and moustache) is not simple to explain in a
radiation hypothesis if no references are made to the electric field generated by the points and
highly curved surfaces of the very thin cylindrical surfaces of hair, see Figure 1. This is because the
TS hair is soft, as opposed to the supposed packing effects of anointing oils and body fluids such as
blood and sweat. According to E. Lindner (1997), the hair image is an important sign of the
presence of a radiation of electrons, but he hypothesizes that the protons disappeared and the
bumping of the electrons against the neutrons lead the electrons to bounce against the TS causing
the image.
-2) According to G. Fanti et al. (2005), the body image on the Shroud is extremely superficial
not only at a macroscopic level involving the fabric, but also at a microscopic level involving the
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single image- fibers. The medullas of each image- fiber of the Shroud are not colored; only a 100-
300 nm-thick layer of polysaccharides around each linen fiber is colored. The cross-polarized
photomicrographs of these image-fibers show the presence of very few defects related to proton,
neutron or photon radiation. No defects are experimentally obtained in the case of a CD coloration.
-3) According to G. Fant i et al. (2005),
“
[i]
f a fiber is colored, it is uniformly colored around its
cylindrical surface
â€. A radiative model that considers photons or other particles that strike against a
limited surface of the linen fibers cannot easily explain the fact that the medullas are not colored.
This would indicate that an electrostatic model must be hypothesized. In this model, variously
energized geometry-dependent surface streamers impact the linen fibers according to a radial
configuration.
-4) According to G. Fanti et al. (2005), “[t]
he color of the image-areas has a discontinuous
distribution along the yarn of the cloth
†and “[t]
he absence of saturation implies that the image
formation did not go to completion
â€. This is another fact that is not simple to explain if any
radiation composed of uniformly distributed photons is hypothesized unless outwardly directed
single streamers (making up the glow corona) impact the barrier under examination (TS) with a
surface distribution law in function of the surface electrostatic stress (surface electric field
intensity).
-5) A numerical simulation of hands (G. Fanti May 2005) radiating different types of energy
showed that in order to obtain an image like that of the TS, it is necessary to hypothesize that there
is not a radia tion ruled by the emissivity of non- metallic surfaces, but a unidirectional radiation
normal to the skin surface. This condition is typical of electrostatic fields.
-6) The three-dimensional information of the TS is not always consistent in the sense that,
according to G. Fanti et al. (2005), image details corresponding to the Face grooves are more faintly
represented (e.g. eye sockets and skin around the nose) while convex “hills†on the Face (e.g.
eyeballs and nose tip) are more clearly represented. Therefore, the correlation between image
luminance and body-sheet distance is not always verified. This can be explained by the fact that,
with reference to a surface electrostatic field, the more stressed locations correspond to the
protrusions.
-7) Two hypotheses have been proposed on how the TS was placed around the body (see Figure
2). Hypothesis 1 states that the Man was tightly wrapped in the TS by means of bandages.
Hypothesis 2 states that the body was enveloped in the TS and put horizontally over the tomb stone
but due to cadaveric stiffness, the head is still tilted forward and the knees partially bent in
accordance to the position on the cross (Fanti 2001). Around the corpse there are plants that prevent
body-sheet contact.
According to G. Fanti et al. (2005), the luminance level variation of the image sections of
cylindrical elements such as legs approximates a cosinusoidal law (see Figure 3 A and B). This fact
can be easily explained by means of an electrostatic model considering a circle, vertical cross
section of a cylinder representing a leg, (see Figure 3 C) and a luminance vector L orthogonal to the
circle. If the luminance level variation L along the circle is proportional to the electric field E of Eq.
4 in Hypothesis A (explained below in §3), L is:
L = k E(
θ
) = 2k E
o
cos
θ
(1)
where k is a constant and
Ï‘
the angle between the horizontal radius of the circle and L vector. In
reference to Hypothesis 2 and Figure 3 C, the vertical projection L’ of L is:
L’ = L sin (1-
Ï‘) =
L cos
Ï‘ =
2k E
o
cos
2
θ
(2)
If the luminance level variation L along the circle is proportional to a constant electric field E, as
stated in Hypothesis B (explained below in §3), L’ is:
L’ = E
o
’
cos
θ
(3)
Therefore, a vertical projection L’ of the luminance vector on the TS surface follows a
cosinusoidal (linear or quadratic) law in accordance to the TS body image.
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Figure 2. Two different hypotheses on how the TS was placed around the corpse: vertical cross
section of the human body roughly schematized as a cylinder. -1) according to F.
Lattarulo (1998), the Man was tightly wrapped; -2) According to G. Fanti (2001) the
Man was enveloped.
Figure 3. A) Blurred image of the TS legs; B) luminance level distribution along the red line of
fig (A); C) schema of the distribution of luminance along a cross section of a
cylindrical shape (leg).
-8) As will be shown in the section
5. Experiments and Results
, CD causes very a superficial and
doubly-superficial, negative and undistorted 3-D body image, showing many details. On a che mical
level, the color obtained by CD on linen cloth corresponds to a dehydratation of polysaccharides, as
previously detected on the TS image.
Therefore, according to A. Adler (1999) “[s]
everal people have championed a coronal discharge
mechanism ... and their experiments have provided samples … that come very close to meeting both
the chemical and physical criteria
†of the TS characteristics.
3) HYPOTHESES INVOLVING CORONA DISCHARGE
Two different hypotheses involving CD can be proposed for discussing the body image
formation process. These hypotheses, still in progress, are (see Figure 4):
- Hypothesis A) The Man was put in a tomb and subjected to an exogenous electrostatic field.
- Hypothesis B) The Man was put in a tomb and he directly generated an electrostatic field.
Hypotheses A and B can be combined with Hypotheses 1 and 2 of §2.7, but the combination
B-1 does not seem to be directly related to the 3D features of the body image. With reference to the
above hypotheses, the electric field is the result of a separation of electrical charges which can be
assumed to be deposited in electrostatic equilibrium on the surfaces of three conducting objects
(two flat electrodes simulating the tomb rock and a fluctuant electrode corresponding to the human
body). In Hypothesis A, a virtual voltage is applied to the couple of flat electrodes, while in
Hypothesis B, the voltage is applied between the body and the equipotential couple of flat
electrodes.
In reference to Hypothesis A, the primary sources of the electrostatic field in the upper half-
space are large (with respect to anthropometric magnitudes) quartziferous layers deposited in the
lower half-space. However, for the sake of simplicity, the restricted electrostatic domain
surrounding the human body can virtually be described by recurring to the currently adopted notion
of a pair of indefinitely extended and parallel planar electrodes. The voids, filled by air, hold a
floating and discharged (zero net-charge) conducting body. Therefore, the body can be seen as
A
B
L=2kE
0
cos
Ï‘
L=2kE
0
cos
2
Ï‘
Ï‘
L=2kE
0
cos
2
Ï‘
C
1
2
TS Man
TS Cloth
Tufts of herbs
Tomb stone
Spices and salts
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being located in a uniform electric field whose source is the pair of oppositely polarized boundary
electrodes that emit opposite polarity stationary charges. The electrical field lines of the undisturbed
electric field are vertical if the upper electrode system is made up of horizontal plates. The
interposed floating conductor disturbs the surrounding electric field. Therefore, the overall electric
field is characterized by equal inward and outward directed fluxes that are radially oriented around
the body surface (see Figure 4 A). The local electric strength differs as a function of the body’s
geometry and orientation with respect to the undisturbed field.
In Hypothesis B the electrical field lines are radial as well, but the electric field pattern and local
strengths differ significantly from Hypothesis A. This is because the electrode configuration in
Hypothesis B (see Figure 4 B) is an energized (non- zero net charge) body located in the oppositely
charged equipotential system (thus interconnected) made up of the pair of planar plates.
Figure 4. Simplified schema of Hypotheses A and B in which the conductive and not grounded
or “floating†body is a cylinder (end fringing neglected).
3.1) Simplified electrostatic models
Hypothesis A
(Lattarulo 1998)
A conductive and ungrounded cylinder (inner body) is inserted into a uniform electric field E
0
.
Accordingly,
E(
θ
) = 2 E
o
cos
θ
(4)
represents the polar law for the surface field magnitude E(
θ
) (J.A Stratton 1941). Here E
o
is the
applied field and
θ
the angle that refers to the vertical direction.
The more stressed (at higher E(
θ
)) surface regions, namely those where the charge separation is
characterized by larger densities, are in proximity of
θ=0
and
θ=π
. E(
θ
) decays symmetrically,
according to the above cosine law, up to zero for
θ
=±
Ï€
/2.
Hypothesis B
A surface deposit of charge s (non- zero net charge) is present on a conductive and ungrounded
cylinder (the human body) while the outer pair of boundary electrodes are grounded. If the latter
electrode system is distanced enough from the inner body, the radial electric field E(
θ
) tends to be
uniform as does the surface charge density. However, if the grounded electrode system comes
closer, the non-negligible mutual electrostatic influence gives rise to a non-uniform
E(
θ
)-distribution all around the inner body. This distribution cannot be represented by a formula
similar to Eq. 4 since it is preferable to use numerical methods to study the field under examination.
Characteristics valid in both hypotheses
CD is present in the body surface where E(
θ
) exceeds the corona threshold, which is a function
of the gas characteristics. The flux lines are orthogonal to the curve surface of the cylinder and,
therefore, agree with the assumed direction of “radiationâ€, which is orthogonal with respect to the
skin as evidenced in (G. Fanti, May 2005). However, while in Hypothesis A the density charge is
variable with angle
θ
, in Hypothesis B this density is almost constant.
Null charge
Tomb rocks
TS Man
TS cloth
Positive
charge
+
Negative
charge
-
Electrical
field line
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
A
-
-
+
-
+
-
-
-
+
+
B
+
+
Electrostatic
field
Electrostatic
field
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Figure 5. Schema of charge concentration at protrusions under a linen cloth (TS) and
corresponding strength lines S; L=low density of the electrical field.
If the inner object (the human body) has an irregular configuration presenting protrusions and
valleys, the local electric field strength changes significantly, becoming larger at the outer locations
of the protrusions (see Figure 5).
-3.2) Body and environmental hypotheses
-
Hypothesis A)
The body was tightly wrapped in the TS by means of bandages and placed
horizontally on the tomb stone. No other hypotheses on the configuration of the corpse, such as
those described in Hypothesis B are necessary in this case.
-
Hypothesis B)
The body was enveloped in the TS and placed horizontally on the tomb stone, but
due to cadaveric stiffness, the head was still tilted forward and the knees partially bent in
accordance to the position on the cross (Fanti 2001). Around the corpse there are plants that
prevent body-sheet contact; due to this configuration, no lateral images were impressed on the
TS and some geometrical distortions (e.g. torso and calves) are explained.
Characteristics valid in both hypotheses
- The body covered by the TS was placed on a dry (thus insulating) stone covered by spices and
salts. The field perturbation related to the different dielectric constants of the insulating
components, air included, are assumed to be negligible in comparison to the perturbation caused
by the conducting body.
- At the moment of the image formation, the TS (whose basic constituents are cellulose and air)
had been anointed with oil, which is dielectric, and other similar substances or it was dry.
Therefore, the fabric is assumed to be a dielectric posed around the body.
- There were air-filled interstices in the dielectric compartments between the stone and body.
- The air was ionized by radon so that the CD threshold significantly decreased.
-3.3) Bloodstain formation hypotheses
- The human blood clots were wetted with a cloth, redissolved and transposed onto the TS by
means of a fibrinolysis process.
- After the bloodstains were transposed onto the cloth, a CD began and a body image formed on
the TS yarns, but blood on the fibers act as a local barrier to corona bombardment, thus
preventing the shielded fibers from undergoing any corona aging.
- In reference to Hypothesis 1, the lack of flagrum signs in zones where there is lateral contact, for
example the legs, lead us to assume that there were objects, such as bandages, placed between
the lateral part of the legs and the TS.
-3.4) Corona discharge hypotheses
It is known that CD occurs in nature as an electrostatic discharge (S. Elmo’s fire, according to an
old- fashioned terminology) during thunderstorms. Furthermore, if a conducting rod in non- ionized
air is put close to, but non in contact with, an opposite conductor (for example, a pla ne collector),
CD will occur, especially concentrated around the tip, if a suitable voltage is applied to the
electrode system (see Figure 6).
It is also known that an earthquake can cause a large electric field surrounding compressed rock
layers of quartz
(
quartz crystals are present for example in granite or gneiss layers). The possible
presence of large amounts of radon, frequently detected before and during earthquakes, makes the
environmental air a highly ionized medium. In this environment, CD effects have been detected on
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and above the earth surface. An earthquake is mentioned in the New Testament, a circumstance
leading to make the following suppositions.
Figure 6. Positive CD in non-ionized air at a conductive point. The experiment involved a
conductive point (left) in proximity to a plasma ball covered by a sheet of paper (right).
-
Hypothesis A)
A surface corona process in the tomb formed a complete image as a result of an
exogenous electric field produced by the piezoelectric effect of quartziferous layers. The
triggering mechanical cause was an earthquake, which also caused a significant pre-ionization by
radon efflux and concentration. It is worth considering that earthquake-originated electric fields
are generally not strong enough to produce CD on smooth conductive surfaces unless the corona
inception level is lowered by environmental pre- ionization.
-
Hypothesis B)
CD over the body could have been a by-product of a particular phe nomenon, such
as the Resurrection (a phenomenon that cannot be discussed on a scientific level). Perhaps the
corpse emitted electrons as a form of radiation (
β
-rays are electron rays). In this case, any
reference to pre- ionization becomes an insignificant detail.
-
Hypothesis A)
The presence of radon (common when there are earthquakes) in the environment
drastically promoted the corona activity even in the realistic presence of an electric field that was
not exceptionally strong.
-
Hypothesis B)
The not necessary presence of radon reduced the ESD threshold.
Characteristics valid in both hypotheses
- During a CD, air produces free electrons and positively-charged ions.
- The energy associated with the corona streamers is not enough to directly impress any scorch-
like image.
- The electrostatic field was not intense enough to oxidize a significant amount of the TS apart
from the very superficial body image.
- It is possible to have a corona between two surfaces in contact, such as the tip of the nose and the
linen cloth, if one of the two is not a conductor (i.e. the linen cloth). This is true unless the TS is
wet (water or other conductive fluid that completely permeates the air filled interstices); in other
words, if the two surfaces become conductors, the system becomes equipotential making the
local electric field strength tend to zero.
-3.5) Hypotheses on CD effects for body image formation on the TS
-
Hypothesis A)
There is a relationship between the 3-D information of the body image on the TS
and Eqs. 1, 2 and 3. Similar laws are expected if the smooth cylinder is replaced by an unevenly
shaped conductor with an irregular surface.
-
Hypothesis B)
In addition to Eqs. 1, 2 and 3, the CD effect also depends on the distance between
the corpse and the TS, which also produces some 3D information (see Figure 7). The 3D effects
of the body image are caused both by the electrostatic field variation along the body surface and
by the body-cloth distance.
Characteristics valid in both hypotheses:
- Although electrons are the medium that triggers the process, it is the ions (ionized air and vapor
surrounding the streamers) ozone (O
3
) and acids, photons, UV light and heating up to 50-150 °C
that produce the image: they react with the polysaccharides of the linen fibers, and break their
chemical compounds.
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Figure 7. 3-D effect of coin images formed on photographic paper by means of CD. On the left, 3
coins were exposed to CD; the darker image corresponds to the coin closer to the
condenser. On the right, a spherical object near a flat condenser generates an image
darker in the middle showing 3-D effects.
- The glow often accompanying CD appears as a bluish glow, essentially UV light.
- CD produces energy-free zones in impurities around the linen fiber surface. CD acts at a
chemical level with the linen fibers in such a way that color was produced as the fibers aged.
- Relatively long exposure to CD produces surface erosion of the linen fibers, but this is not the
case of the TS image.
- When the filamentary streamers that generate the glow strike the linen, some catalysts due to the
presence of iron, calcium and strontium or oils in the TS can act on the fabric.
- The image produced by CD is probably at first latent or weakly visible. Further heating lower
than 200° C, exposition to sunlight or aging that dehydrates the polysaccharide layer, turns the
image into a yellow to light brown color. Heating must not be higher than 200° C because, if it
is, it singes the linen fibers and generates UV fluorescence, but the TS image does not fluoresce.
- In order to have a CD-originated imaging effect, the TS must be inside the glow-CD layer, i.e.
the length of the single emitted streamers is greater than the body-cloth distance.
- The glow-CD layer is interrupted by the presence of the TS and re-starts on the outer surface of
the TS. The outer streamers are energetically less severe, so that the intensity of the image
impressed on the outer surface of the linen is reduced. This explains the double superficiality of
the image.
- The pre- ionizing rate of radon is responsible for the elongation and energy of the single
streamers.
5) EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS
Experiments were performed on linen samples and photographic paper to compare results with
TS data. Some experiments were first done on photographic paper, since the image is easier to
obtain, in order to better highlight some macroscopic characteristics of CD. Other experiments were
then done on linen cloths in order to confirm the previous results and to highlight the microscopic
effects of CD on linen fibers.
5.1) Experiments with a Van de Graaff ribbon generator
5.1.1) Experimental apparatus
A Van de Graaff ribbon generator was used to generate images of objects on photographic paper
and linen cloth. The generator produces a DC (Direct Current ) potential of 35000±5000 V with a
current intensity less than 0.01 mA, see Figure 8.
Various objects were subjected to a series of discharges capable of producing a visible effect.
A
4400V AC (Alternating Current) transformer at 0.0025 A (11 W) working at 50 Hz for 300 s was
also used to obtain similar results. Both sets of experiments showed that a power increase causes a
higher image intensity (see Figure 9). This increase is correlated to energy W, and thus the
maximum depth for the image formation, according to the relation:
W = P t = U I t
(5)
where P is electric power, t exposure time, U voltage and I current intensity.
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Figure 8. Schema of the ex perimental apparatus on the left: 1) metal relief about 3 mm thick; 2)
photographic paper; 3) plastic foil as dielectric; 4) grounded metal plate; 5) Van de
Graaff generator; 6) grounded sphere for spark discharges; 7) additional condenser to
increase the capacitance. Photo of the experimental set-up on the right.
Figure 9. On the left, original St. Anthony medal (6 cm diameter and 3.5 mm relief depth)
used for experiments; in the middle, result on linen cloth and on the right result on
photographic paper.
5.1.2) Experimental results compared with those of the TS
- Double images without lateral information The TS image has a frontal image and a dorsal image,
but no lateral body images are impressed on the cloth. Two reliefs of a medal were used in the
experiment shown in Figure 10. Both frontal and dorsal images of the medal are represented
simultaneously but no lateral images are visible, as is the case of the TS (this experimental set-up
is in agreement with Hypothesis B).
Figure 10. On the left, experimental apparatus: 1) double sided relief; 2) photographic paper; 3)
plate in the electric circuit U form (+). On the right the results of the dorsal and
frontal images on photographic paper.
- Effect of the distance The results of a coin placed at a distance varying from 0 to 3.5 mm from a
sheet of photographic paper are shown in Figure 11. As expected, the image intensity decreases
with the coin-paper distance, and at a distance greater than 3 mm the image disappears.
In order to achieve a 3D distance of more than 40 mm in agreement with position of the TS in
Hypothesis 2-B, a voltage much higher than the available experimental one is needed. Higher
voltage means enhanced ion velocity and ion avalanche density, and ultimately, reduced
scattering effect and improved image resolution. The distance of more than 40 mm of the TS
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image indicates that there must have been a discharge of a very high voltage which lasted for an
extremely short time and thus avoided burning the cloth.
- Bandages CD experiments show that flat bandages are transparent on the impressed image
whereas a piece of yarn that is round causes a mark on the image. In the TS body image, no
bandage marks are clearly visible even if we can imagine that there were bandages (see Figure
12).
Figure 11. On the left, schema of the coin set-up with respect to the photographic paper; on the
right, coin image impressed as a function of its distance from the paper.
Figure 12. On the left, resulting image of a medal relief covered with yarn, bandage and hair. On
the right detail of hair: clean hair is relatively transparent in the image but wet/moist
hair causes a clear mark.
- Hair Experiments show that clear hair is barely represented in the image, but hair pre-treated
with oil or a salt solution (sweat) is clearly represented as is the hair on the TS (see Figure 12).
- Blood Experiments show that moist blood prevents the generation of an image and in the TS
there are no images where there are blood stains.
- Oil or salts It is easier to form an image of an oily or wet and salty object than if it is dry and it
has been hypothesized that the TS was anointed with oils.
- Saliva and tears If cheeks are covered in saliva or tears, the respective area is not represented in
the image as is the case of blood. In the TS, it is possible to detect a clearer area where there
might have been saliva and tears or traces of water.
Figure 13. On the left, image of a 0.1 mm thick sheet of copper in which some convex hills
(darker) and concave hollows (lighter) were previously made by means of a pointed
stick. In the middle (positive CD) and on the right (negative CD), smear effects on coin
images on photographic paper.
3.5 mm
Bandage
Yarn
Hair
Normal
Wet
Yarn knot
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- Valleys and hills Concave valleys and convex hills respectively cause charge spacing out and
concentration that generate lighter and darker images (see Figure 5). On the TS Face (positive)
the eye sockets are lighter but the tip of the nose and the eye balls are darker than normal.
- Smears due to CD Smears generate an enlargement of the reproduced image. Perhaps this effect
could be correlated to the TS fingers, which appear longer than normal (there could also be a
charge concentration due to the point effect) (see Figure 13).
- Time effect Images experimentally produced on linen are consistent in color more than 20 years
after their production, but images obtained with oily cloths can be less stable.
5.2) Experiments on linen cloth with a plasma ball
5.2.1) Experimental apparatus
A plasma ball was used to generate images of objects on linen cloth. In a plasma ball (Tipler
1998) voltages ranging from 3 to 8 kV, at frequencies between 20 and 50 kHz are applied
between the sphere at the center and the glass shell which is grounded (Figure 14 A). The region
in-between is filled with a mixture of inert gases such as nitrogen, argon and neon. The applied
voltage partially ionizes the gas generating current-carrying plasma filaments. The colors
displayed are paths along which ionization is occurring.
The generated electric field can cause avalanche re-starts and streamers in the air outside the ball
and then CD as shown in Figure 6. The experimental apparatus used to form images on linen
cloth was the following (see Figure 14).
- A commercial plasma ball having a diameter of 20 cm was used to generate an electric field.
- Some samples of new, but not bleached linen cloth (sizes of about 3 x 3 cm) were placed on the
glass surface of the plasma ball.
- A metallic object having details less than 1 mm, in this case a bronze watch wheel (diameter of
15 mm), was placed on the linen sample.
- The metallic object was grounded by means of a copper wire connected to a metallic mass.
- A pressure of about 1000 Pa on the cloth was obtained by placing a non-conductive mass over
the metallic object.
Figure 14. -A) Experimental apparatus used. B) Bronze watch wheel. C) Bolts of lightening in
the plasma ball generates a CD in the air between the glass sphere, linen cloth and
watch wheel. D) A human hand covered by a linen cloth placed over the plasma ball
causes partial CD that are visible as the fingers shine due to the production of ions
(condenser effect).
After an exposition of the linen cloth to the plasma ball varying from 300 s to 10,000 s, the
samples were “aged†by heating them with an iron set at a temperature of 190±10°C. An optical
pyrometer was used to measure the temperature of the linen cloth in an 8 mm spot in
correspondence to the CD. The temperature was quite variable with a mean temperature on the cloth
of 45 °C and a peak of 62 °C reached after 60 s of plasma exposition; the room temperature was 21 °C.
When a hand, covered by a linen sheet was placed on the external glass of a plasma ball, an
image of the hand shone on the sheet, see Figure 14-D. An electrician’s screwdriver, placed in the
external electric field generated by the plasma ball, lit up showing that the electric field outside the
A
B
C
D
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plasma ball was strong enough to illuminate the screwdriver much more than when it comes into
contact with a 220 V power mains.
5.2.2) Results on pure linen cloth
After an exposition of 300 s to the CD, the linen cloth showed an image that is only visible in
UV light (see Figure 15 A).
After heating this sample with an iron (additional thermal aging), the
watch wheel image appeared even in visible light (see Figure 15 B). The resolution of the image is
of the order of 1 mm, better than that of the TS, which is 4.9±0.5 mm (Fanti Sept. 2005).
If a linen cloth is covered with oil, after a similar exposition to CD, an image appears in visible
light without ironing the sample. It is worth observing that, in accordance with the TS (Fanti 2004),
the image on the linen cloth subject to CD is very superficial but double: it appears on both the front
and back surfaces. Furthermore, as in the TS, the image on the back of the sample has a lower
intensity.
Figure 15. -A) Watch wheel image in UV light before heating (the vertical
segment is the copper-wire image); -B) watch wheel image in
visible light after heating the sample.
Figure 16. Photomicrographs of image fibers (diameter of about 10 micrometers) obtained by
means of a plasma ball. –A) The medulla is not colored. –B) The arrow shows a non-
color area corresponding to the fiber medulla because the color layer is absent there:
this confirms that the color resides only on the outer layer as it has been detected on the
TS. –C) In agreement with the TS, the image-fiber shows a “crackled†surface (arrow).
Figure 17. TS image-fibers (diameter of about 10 micrometers) coming from sample STURP-1EB
(courtesy of Raymond Rogers, photomicrographs G. Fanti). –A) The medulla is not
colored. –B) The left arrow shows a non-color area corresponding to the fiber medulla
because the color layer is absent there; the right arrow shows a “crackled†surface.
The medullas of the resulting image- fibers are not colored and the fiber surface is “crackledâ€
(see Figure 16 A-C) like those of the TS (see Figures 17). Furthermore, as can be seen in Figure 16
B, the image fibers obtained are circumferentially colored just as the TS image fibers are (in
A
B
C
A
B
A
B
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agreement with Fanti et al. 2005). This led us to assume that the image fibers can function as
lightening conductors.
Figure 18: corrosion of a linen cloth exposed for 10,000 s to CD. –A) some voids in the
yarns are evident. –B) photomicrograph of a linen fiber in which a diameter
reduction is shown (diameter of about 10 micrometers).
Corrosion, which is typical of exposition to CD, was found in a linen cloth after an exposition of
10,000 s to the plasma ball, but this was not the case in linen cloths exposed for 300 s. After such a
prolonged period of CD exposition, no image is clearly visible because the corrosion most likely
destroyed the image layer. Nonetheless, in the sample there are some voids without any sign of
scorches: this means that the corrosion he ld at temperatures below 200 °C (see Figure 18 A).
Furthermore, some fibers show a shortening of their diameter in correspondence of some zones
exposed to corrosion (see Figure 18 B).
5.2.3) Results on coated linen cloth
In agreement with Fanti et al. (2005) “[b]
ody image color resides on the thin impurity layer of
the outer surfaces of the fibers
†of the TS and this layer is made of polysaccharides. In order to
reproduce this condition, samples of new unbleached linen sheets previously soaked in a saturated
solution of sugar and air-dried for a few hours were subjected to CD for 300 s using a plasma ball.
Figure 19. -A) image of watch wheel on a sugar coated linen cloth; -B) detail of the watch
wheel image; the arrow indicates a burn caused by a series of lightening bolts that
hit the same area; -C) detail showing the superficiality of the color on the yarns;
the arrow indicates a bright area after the more brittle, superficial fibers were
removed mechanically.
After heating the linen sheet, an image appeared in visible light (see Figures 19 and 20). Figure
21 shows a color fiber of the TS as a comparison: both uncolored medulla and color increment from
the right to the left can be seen. In Figure 19 B a burn hole due to the effect of a continuous
lightening acting on a specific point on the linen cloth can be seen. This was caused by pointing a
conducting wire near the cloth. Obviously, these burn holes do not appear on the TS because no
pointed conducting wires were presumed to be involved. The superficiality of the image and greater
brittle behavior of the corresponding image fibers, which are typical of the TS, are verified with
these corona experiments (see Figure 19 C).
C
B
A
A
B
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Figure 20. CD experiments on coated linen fibers (diameter of about 10 micrometers). -A)
image-fiber colored in the middle: the medulla is not colored; -B) detail of another
image fiber: the colored sugar-coating (yellow) can be seen; -C) color-fiber seen in
cross-polarized light: the colored sugar-coating is darker on the left while the
uncoated linen fiber on the right is white.
Figure 21. Uncolored medulla of an image-fiber (diameter of about 10 micrometers)
coming from sample STURP-1EB (courtesy of R. Rogers, photomicrograph
G. Fanti). The color increment along the fiber from the right to the left can
also be seen.
It is interesting to observe that on a piece of yarn colored by the CD experiments, there are
striations, i.e. colored linen fibers side by side with non-colored fibers, very similar to the TS image
(see Figure 22).
Figure 22. Contrast enhanced photographs of pieces of colored yarn in linen cloths:
striations can be clearly seen. –A) CD experiment; -B) TS image (courtesy of
Mark Evans ME-20 photomicrograph of the eye).
5.2.4) Microphotographs of image fibers in cross-polarized light
If a linen fiber is seen at extinction in cross-polarized light, some defects relative to the cellulose
crystals in the fiber may be evidenced. The darker areas in the photomicrographs correspond to non-
defects in the crystal structure of the cellulose while the lighter areas (at the growth nodes of the
linen fibers) correspond to discontinuities or defects.
A
B
C
A
B
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Figure 23. Photomicrographs of linen fibers (diameter of about 10 micrometers) in cross-
polarized light (courtesy of J. Botella in 2005). –A) untreated fiber used as a
control; -B) image fiber obtained by means of CD; -C) TS non-image fiber
(courtesy of 3M Italia - G. Riggi di Numana in 2004).
Figure 23 A shows a typical photomicrograph of an untreated fiber used as a control. The
presence of defects (clear areas) can clearly be seen at the growth nodes in the fiber, but the
cellulose crystals outside the area of the nodes where the medulla are appear very dark and,
therefore, without any appreciable defects. Figure 23 B shows an image fiber exposed to CD. Again
there is no evidence of defects in the crystal structure of the cellulose in the medulla (dark area)
showing that the CD does not act inside the fiber but only outside it. Figure 23 C shows a TS non-
image fiber where some defects in the medulla can clearly be seen (mainly in the grey area on the
left and on the right but also other lighter irregularities along the whole fiber). These defects have
been caused by ageing. This result confirms the fact that the TS fibers are very old and that the CD
cause effects in the crystal structure of the linen fibers one order of magnitude less than those
present on the TS fibers.
6) DISCUSSION
A comparison of the results of these experiments involving CD with some characteristics of the
TS leads to many interesting considerations. Some of the more noteworthy ones are listed here.
-1) According to J. Botella (2005), in reference to CD experiments, it “[…]
is easier to pull fibers
from the image area of the cloth than from the non-image areas
.†This fact was also detected by
L. Schwalbe (1982) and G. Fanti detected a more brittle behavior on a TS image fiber coming
from STURP-1EB (courtesy of R. Rogers). This means that the linen fibers exposed to CD are
more brittle than non- image fibers, as are those of the TS. Consequently, we can imagine that the
TS fibers were exposed to CD.
-2) There is agreement between the images obtained by means of CD and the TS images with
reference to the following points:
-a) linen bandages are transparent to CD effects (in reference to Hypothesis 1).
-b) clean, dry hair does not cause an image, but sweaty or oily hair generates an evident image;
-c) double superficial images appear on linen cloth pre-treated with sugar (Fanti 2004).
-3) The depth of penetration of the image in the TS is of the order of few tens of micrometers;
experimental results indicate that to obtain such small depths, the exposure time to CD must
have been less than a few milliseconds; this condition can be achieved by a series of short bolts
of lightning (Scheuermann 1983).
A
B
C
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-4) No references were made in this paper about the effects of flowers, leaves and coins on a linen
cloth, even if also they can cause an image if subjected to CD, because their presence on the TS
cloth is still not accepted by all researchers.
-5) The 3-D information of images obtained by means of CD is similar to that of the TS. There are
differences in the image intensity in some areas where the TS probably touched the corpse: for
example the tip of the nose generated the strongest image but also the hands were in contact with
the TS. This fact can be simply explained using basic notions involving geometry-dependent
electrostatic stress (point effect). Narrow concave areas of the corpse (e.g. eye sockets) and hills
(e.g. eyeballs) seem to deviate from the normal 3-D information in their luminance: concave
areas are clearer than normal, hills are darker. The difference in the luminance between the
eyeballs and the eye sockets appears exagge rated in a 3-D relief because it displays an excessive
distance. This can be explained by the fact that electric charge carriers (e.g. electrons) radiate
preferably from points and protruding places.
-6) The voltage also determines the maximum body-cloth distance needed to form an image. In
reference to Hypothesis B-2, according to J. Jackson, in the TS this distance is 4-6 cm if a
uniform radiation is assumed. The experimental results also show that (Figure 11) the maximum
depth capable of reproducing an image on photographic paper is 3.5 mm if a potential
35000±5000 V is used. A decrease in the current intens ity (due to a change in the dielectric) did
not seem to have an appreciable effect on the formed image, while the time and the potential,
which could not be sufficiently varied in the experiments, had a greater effect both on the degree
of scorching and the penetration depth on the fabric. On the other hand, the image contrast
became lower when the current intensity was smaller. Dr. Igor Bensen of the Bensen Aircraft
Corp. wrote that an energy level of 50 J/cm
2
applied for 0.1 s on a linen fabric produces an
image. Assuming that half of the TS is involved in the image, it would require 1100 kW lasting
for 0.1 s to produce an image. The most likely electro-potential would probably be at least 60
million V, more than 2000 times greater than the amount used in the experiments; such high
potentials are not easy to achieve in the laboratory. Interestingly a Ball Lightening, which is a
negatively charged sphere of ionized plasma that occurs during heavy thunderstorms, possesses
some of these characteristics. Since it is negatively charged, it is attracted by positively
conducting objects such as human bodies.
-7) R. Rogers (2004) commented that the UV of CD has to produce high energy- free defects in an
impurity layer on the fibers' surfaces without affecting the cellulose, but if radiation is intense,
defects also appear in the cellulose. He is right: radiation produced by means of CD must be not
too intense. On the other hand experiments clearly show that it is relatively easy to reach this
condition and no defects were detected in the medullas of the image fibers as it is shown in
Figure 23.
-8) R. Rogers (2004) commented that any CD in the air produce atomic oxygen and excited
oxygen molecules: both oxidize the material of the cloth. In agreement with him, given enough
time or intensity, plasma in the air completely consumes a linen sample. According to the results
shown in Figure 18, this fact was detected experimentally when the exposition to CD was
sufficiently high. However, according to the results shown in Figures 15, 19 and 22 no erosion
was detected when the exposition time was lower.
-9) R. Rogers (2004) commented that it is quite easy for sparks and arcs to form in the air, but no
spark or arc damage is seen on the TS. Except the case shown in Figure 19 B, where damage was
caused by a pointed conducting wire placed near the cloth, in the other experiments no damage
was detected, in accordance with the characteristics of the TS.
-10) R. Rogers (2005) independently carried out some experiments on plasma effects, but at a very
high rate of erosion: plasma was produced at 27 MHz in a 1% oxygen atmosphere having an
energy of 220 W; the cloth was exposed for 30 s. In this case, the nap of the cloth was removed
and the fibers were oxidized by the energetic oxygen atoms and molecules, even though the
temperature was not high enough to dehydrate and color the cellulose. Rogers used these results
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to preliminarily reject the CD hypothesis and did not have the time to find out that CD applied at
lower energy leve ls would have solved all these problems. He continued his studies on fibers
excessively exposed to CD, observing them in cross-polarized light at extinction. He commented
that the effects of plasma cause observable changes in linen samples looked at in cross-polarized
light whereas no such effects can be observed in TS image fibers. On the other hand, the results
reported in Figure 23 clearly show that these defects are not visible if the linen fibers are exposed
to CD characterized by less intense energy levels.
-11) R. Rogers (2005) objected that two objects in contact with each other, such as the TS cloth
and the tip of the nose, have the same electric potential and therefore no CD effects can be seen.
According to §3.4, the local electric field strength is not negligible if the surfaces in contact are
not conductors. O. Scheuermann (1984) experimentally detected that contacts of conductive
objects with a linen cloth do not disturb the formation of an image because the resulting image is
clearly visible without any discontinuity from the contact zone to the non-contact zone. In fact,
the air located in the voids between the fibers makes CD possible.
-12) In reference to Hypothesis A, the electrical field lines were caused by the electrostatic field
gene rated by quartziferous layers that were able to act in a volume having dimensions of
hundreds of meters around the tomb. Furthermore, radon is presumed to have been present. In
accordance with a lot of other data about the TS image, it is highly probable that the TS Man was
Jesus Christ (Fanti 1998). If so, some research must address the geological conditions of tombs
in Jerusalem. A preliminary analysis has showed that the presence of radon is possible even if
there does not seem to be a very high concentration of radon. As far as the geological
stratigraphy is concerned, it seems that no quartziferous layers are present under Jerusalem (1 km
under ground). There are gravel (rock fragments and pebbles that are small smooth rounded
rocks), chalk, phosphorite, limestone (a sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium) and thin
layers (less than 80 m in total) of chert (variety of silica containing microcrystalline quartz).
Nevertheless, these strata of chert do not generate piezoelectric effects because their quartz
crystals are randomly disposed. Consequently, more detailed studies are needed with reference to
Hypothesis A, with special attention paid to the presence of radon. Incidentally, an excess of
ambient ionization can give rise to a self electric field.
-13) F. Zugibe (2005) considered the results obtained by R. Rogers and added some comments
(numbered below as they appear in the original text).
- “
2.
It is very unlikely that corona discharge would produce the kind of striations observed in
the Shroud image
â€, but he did not observe the experimental results shown in Figure 22.
- “
6.
When two surfaces touch (if they have any conductivity at all), they reach the same
potential voltage; therefore, no electrons can be accelerated from one surface to the other and
hence there can be no corona discharge
†and “[t]
he dark color at the end of the nose image
could not be a result of a corona discharge since it is a contact point and should be white
instead because there is no potential at a contact point
â€. As stated before, the TS anointed with
oil is not a conductive material so the potential can be different. Perhaps the yarn striations
typical of both the TS and the CD images, are due to this fact: if a group of conductive linen
fibers is in direct contact with the charged body, their potential voltages are not so different so
no image results; if an adjacent group of fibers of the same yarn is not in contact with the
charged body, the interposed air acts as a dielectric and their potentials differ causing then an
image. Therefore, the tip of the nose where there is a charge concentration must be assumed to
be dark and not “
white
â€.
- “
8. Sufficient power delivered to a cloth can heat it to a high enough temperature for color
formation, but it is doubtful that sufficient power can be delivered by a pure corona discharge
to produce color, because the primary reaction in air will be oxidation of the organic phases.
â€
As stated before, the main cause of color formation is not the relatively low temperature of
about 60 °C connected with corona activity but the presence of UV rays and aggressive
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chemical by-products that generate high energy-free zones in impurities around the linen fibers
surface.
- “
10. Corona discharge cannot be considered as an image mechanism because it requires high
voltages arising from points or edges
.†This statement is explained by Hypotheses A, and B.
- “
11. A plasma will burn away a surface layer of any organic material and char, burn the entire
sample.â€
According to the results shown in Figures 16 and 20, this is not always true. A
scientific statement like this should be made after having tested the effects of different plasma
intensities and discharge modes.
- “
Effects noted included burning off of free flax fibers, removal of cementing substances,
penetration through the porosity of the cloth, burning organic materials, etc.
†Perhaps these
effects can be observed if an excessively high energy source was applied, but, in agreement
with data shown in Figures 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22 and 23, these characteristics were not detected
when a proper energy source was used to obtain images.
- “
1. There was scorching in some of Scheuermann's fibers and they were nothing like Shroud
image fibers, which are not scorched.â€
and
“2. In a photomicrograph in one of Scheuermann's
samples […]. the medulla is darkened […]. proving that the temperature of the entire fiber had
been raised above the level where dehydration reactions could occur[…]
.†Twenty years ago,
Scheuermann ironed some samples at temperatures often higher than 200 °C to make the image
more visible. G. Fanti sent some of these samples to R. Rogers to be tested. They had burn
marks by ironing and showed a reddish UV fluorescence whereas regular samples did not
fluoresce. This particular case must not be generalized without other analyses. No scorches
were found in the samples shown in Figures 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22 and 23. Furthermore, A.
Adler tested about 30 image samples, some of which were salt treated. In Adler’s opinion, the
salt treated images were very similar to the TS image (chemically and microscopically, also
seen with UV light).
-“
3. Scheuermann used about 4,400 V at 0.0025 A (about 11 W) and some of Scheuermann's
fibers showed color formation in the layer of sizing on the cloth; he did not use a pure, DC
discharge; and he covered his cloth with a metal medallion
.†O. Scheuermann connected a
metallic wire from a Van de Graaff ribbon generator to an object to cause a DC current. Later
on he exchanged the Van de Graaff with a transformer that produced better images (AC)
because of its higher energy. The resulting image (AC) was similar to the one obtained from
the experiments with a DC current because the low changing phase did not disturb the results.
-“
4. Scheuermann reported using 4,400 V …. to heat a small volume of linen to temperatures on
the order of 300 degrees centigrade and that this temperature range would color both the
sizing material and the linen (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin)
.†While O. Scheuermann
tested a wide range of parameters to detect the most probable condition to which the TS was
exposed, other researchers, such as R. Rogers, obtained their debatable conclusions from few
data coming from very particular experimental cases.
- “
Although it has been reported that corona discharges affect only the outermost layer of
fabrics, they in fact penetrate the entire porosity of a woven fabric. If they affected the very top
surface and the opposite side, they would affect the core of the cloth
.†Perhaps an excessive
ironing at temperatures higher than 200 °C can cause an image to also affect the core of the
cloth, but a statement like this must be supported both at theoretical and experimental levels.
The data discussed in this paper shows that a double superficial image can be obtained (without
affecting the core of the cloth) if the linen fabric is placed within the layer in which the corona
discharge is acting.
-14) J. Jackson (1982) made some experiments on CD using a reference face. He observed the
associa ted heating with AGA-780 thermo-vision and concluded, perhaps in an excessively
simplistic way, that “…
electrostatic imaging does not appear to be a viable way of producing
an image like the one on the Shroud.â€
This is mainly because he rightly found
“… that not only
is distance a factor in field strength but probably even more important is the local curvature of
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the body shape since electric field tend to accumulate around regions of curvature. Such effects
seem to be a potential problem
….â€. First of all, the direct correlation between corona effects and
temperature must be demonstrated because the image in CD experiments does not seem to be
directly generated by temperature. Secondly, the dependence of the electric field on the surface
curvature seems to be detectable, for example, where the eyes in the TS image are (see § 2-6 and
§5.1.2).
-15) J. Jackson (1990) hypothesized a mechanism of image formation resulting from a burst of
energy from inside the body, which had become mechanically transparent. He also hypothesized
that the source of energy responsible for the body image formation was radiation mainly
composed of soft UV rays. Is this hypothesis compatible with Hypothesis 2-B? Apart from some
details that can be discussed elsewhere, the soft UV rays assumed to exist by J. Jackson may be
due to CD. Furthermore, the double superficiality of the frontal body image he postulated (1990),
which was verified by Fanti (2004), is compatible with Hypothesis 2-B. A thorough study and
comparison between Jackson’s hypothesis and Hypothesis 2-B would perhaps lead to a common
one where it is not necessary to make the special assumption that the enveloped corpse became
mechanically transparent.
7) CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of some proposals that have not widely publicized and on works limited to specific
arguments, this paper presented different hypotheses of an image formation mechanism involving
CD relative to the TS body image. This mechanism was proposed because many other hypotheses
have failed some verification in reference to the very peculiar characteristics of the TS body image.
Even the most credible hypothesis related to radiation still has some unanswered questions.
The CD hypothesis explains many facts, some of the most interesting of which are: the need to
assume the soft hair; that there was a radiation source normal to the skin; the absence of detectable
defects on the cellulose crystals after the energy application; the uniform color of the thin layer of
polysaccharides around the linen fiber; the discontinuous color along the yarn; the 3-D information,
which does not always agree with a simple body-cloth distance relation; the sinusoidal- law relative
to the luminance where the legs were; and, finally, the double superficiality of the image.
The paper presented a theoretical background for the work, followed by a discussion of many
experimental results in comparison with the corresponding data obtained from the TS. The results
proved that many peculiar characteristics of the TS body image can be experimentally reproduced
using CD. A final discussion evidenced that many aspects that other research studies have found
difficult to explain with reference to CD effects can be explained if the involved energies are not
too high. This must be kept in mind when considering the environmental conditions needed to have
produced the TS image.
The aim of this paper was not to completely explain how the TS body image was formed, but
rather to propose an energy source based on CD and its collateral effects, such as the generation of
UV rays and aggressive chemical by-products, both of which could be considered as probable body
image formation agents for the TS. Future detailed analyses considering all the peculiar aspects of
the TS image will perhaps clarify the choice of Hypotheses 1 or 2, A or B, and shed some more
light on the open questions regarding the most important relic of Christianity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many thanks to the late Raymond Rogers who by means of hundreds of e- mails exchanged with
G. Fanti made it possible to study and compare in depth the CD effects on linen fibers with those of
the TS and who was so kind as to give to G. Fanti a piece of sticky-tape classified as STURP-1EB
that was very useful in understand ing some of the very particular characteristics of the TS image-
fibers by direct detection.
THE THIRD DALLAS INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON THE SHROUD OF TURIN: DALLAS, TEXAS, SEPTEMBER 8-11, 2005
21
Many thanks also to the Fondazione 3M Italia (
Via S.Bovio, 3 - Loc.San Felice - 20090 Segrate MI Tel:
02.7035.2586, e-mail: gfondazione3m@mmm.com
), that keeps the documentary material relative to the
scientific studie s on the TS and the personal achieve of G. Riggi di Numana from which freely and
for courtesy some linen fibers used in this study come. Thanks also for Scheuermann’s paper (1983)
which made it possible for G. Fanti to contact him.
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