Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail Natural Resource
Assessment
Elizabeth J. Farnsworth
Research Ecologist
Royalston, Massachusetts
17 July 2004
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail Natural Resource
Assessment
Elizabeth J. Farnsworth
Research Ecologist
Royalston, Massachusetts
17 July 2004
Acknowledgments
This Natural Resource Assessment of the Connecticut portion of the Metacomet-
Mattabesett Trail was prepared for the National Park Service under award
number P4507040104. The author thanks Kevin Case, Ann Colson, Beth
Goettel, David Gumbart, Dan Hubbard, Leslie Kane, Beth Lapin, Christopher
Mangels, Nicole Martinez, Ken Metzler, Adam Moore, Bill Moorhead, Nancy
Murray, Judy Preston, and Karen Zyko for essential advice and logistical support.
All maps were produced by the author (unless otherwise credited) in ArcView
from datalayers provided by the University of Connecticut Map and Geographic
Information Center, the National Park Service, and the Connecticut Forest and
Park Association. Photographs © Elizabeth Farnsworth unless otherwise noted.
1
Summary
The Connecticut portion of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail traverses
approximately 101 miles of mountain summits, forested glades, vernal pools, lakes,
streams, and waterfalls, including some of the most rugged, picturesque, and diverse
landscapes of southern New England. Two of these natural communities are
considered globally rare. A proposed extension of the trail through Guilford,
Connecticut would encompass a rich array of coastal environments, including
freshwater, brackish and saline tidal marshes and beaches that are critical habitat for
uncommon breeding birds. Long vistas of rural towns, agrarian lands, extensive
unfragmented forests, and large river valleys, as well as pathways through important
Native American and colonial landmarks showcase some of the best examples of
classic New England landscapes that are unique in the nation. Situated in one of the
most densely populated areas of the United States, the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail,
with its corridor of comparatively intact habitats, offers numerous opportunities to
appreciate the wild, scenic, pastoral, and cultural features of the region.
Figure 1
: View of the Metacomet Range from Trail at Chauncey Peak.
2
Bedrock Geology
The backbone of much of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail consists of a series of
knife-edged ridges collectively known as the Metacomet Range. This range extends in
a discontinuous, roughly north-south line from New Haven, Connecticut to Greenfield,
Massachusetts, a distance of over 100 miles as the crow flies. The range rises abruptly
from the central lowlands of the Connecticut River valley and forms an impressive
physical landmark that is visible from tens of miles away. The prominent outcrops and
fascinating geology of the Metacomet range has drawn students, artists, and admirers
from all over New England since the 1800’s. Scientific observations made on the range
have provided evidence for the existence of dinosaurs, the action of glaciers, and the
impacts of plate tectonics – phenomena that have changed our fundamental thinking
about the history of the earth (Hitchcock 1957, Lyell 1865).
Figure 2
: Bedrock geology of central
Connecticut with Trail overlay in black. Red
arrows point to arkose (sedimentary) formations;
blue arrow points to basalt (traprock) formations.
Colored areas to east form the older Iapetus
terrane (black arrow). Source: University of
Connecticut datalayers.
The bedrock of the range is a
product of a series of three periods of
violent volcanic eruptions occurring over
a geologically “brief” period
approximately 200 million years ago
(Bell 1985).
The African and American continental
plates, once joined tightly together,
began to pull apart during the Triassic
and Jurassic Periods, forming an
enormous rift beset by numerous fault
lines extending from Florida to
Newfoundland (Lee 1985, Little 2003).
Figure 3
. The Metacomet Trail (overlay in red)
follows and crosses many of the fault lines
(heavy lines) that create this rugged topography.
Source: University of Connecticut datalayers.
3
Figure 4
. Fault lines create many crevices and
deep ravines that shelter vegetation.
Magma
erupted
from widening
fissures as the land surface was
gradually torn apart. The first and oldest
of these lava flows formed a layer of
Talcott Basalt some 65 m thick
(McDonald 1996). A period of relative
calm then ensued over the next several
million years. During this respite, the
basalt was eroded by seasonal tropical
rains (the proto-continent, and thus
Connecticut, was much closer to the
equator then) and washed into lakes
and streams as fine-grained sediments.
These sediments were lithified into
sandstones and silty shales of the
Shuttle Meadow Formation. Another
tumultuous period of volcanism led to
the extrusion of the Holyoke Basalts,
followed by a lengthy period of erosion
and redeposition of more sandstone
(with minor limestone elements),
creating the East Berlin Formation. A
third upheaval spurred the Hampden
Basalt flow. Meanwhile, the expanding
valley began to sink relative to the
surrounding uplands, with the east side
sinking faster than the west as the
Eastern border fault plunged deep under
the bedrock toward the west. Thus, the
layer cake of basalts and arkose
sandstones tilted upward at their
western flank and downward to the east,
a topography still very much in evidence
today. Shortly thereafter, the central
Connecticut lowlands would become a
“failed” rift valley, as the main tension of
the separating continents shifted
eastward, opening up what is now
known as the Atlantic Ocean. No longer
subjected to intense pulling, the land
ceased faulting, but erosion continued
apace. Bands of reworked sediments in
the wake of the Hampden Basalt flow
comprise the youngest layer of
sandstone and siltstone, the Portland
Formation, some 2000 m thick in places.
Today, with subsequent erosion of the
younger sedimentary rocks, the
Metacomet Range consists of tilted hills
mostly capped by resistant older
basalts, interspersed with sedimentary
layers.
Figure 5
. Stratigraphy, faulting, and subsidence of the range. Source: Lee (1985)
4
The Metacomet Range is one of the best places in the world (outside current
centers of activity, such as Hawai’i and Iceland), and the only area on the eastern
seaboard with a developed trail system, to view a broad array of well-preserved volcanic
and sedimentary features such as columnar basalt. Basaltic lava developed polygonal
shrinkage cracks as it cooled, much like those that criss-cross drying mudflats. In
places, these cracks filled with precipitated quartz and calcite, further enriching the
chemistry of the bedrock (and the soils weathered from it). These deep fissures broke
the rock into pentagonal and hexagonal columns, some of them more than 1 meter in
diameter. Eons of glacial plucking and freeze-thaw action continue to accentuate these
vertical columns and to expose new ones. The term “trap rock,” used to describe this
columnar basalt, derives from the Swedish word, “trappa,” meaning “step.” Towers of
columnar basalt create the precipitous, west-facing cliffs so characteristic of the
Metacomet Range. Upon exposure to air, the iron-rich minerals of basalt turn a
brownish rusty color.
Figure 6
. Columnar basalt at summit of traprock
ridge, Meriden, Connecticut.
Other volcanic features of interest
include pillow lava (magma that instantly
cooled into rounded shapes as it
bubbled into a water body) and lava
tubes (formed as surface lava cooled
while underground lava continued to
flow), both of which are especially well
exposed where the Trail passes through
Talcott Mountain State Park in
Simsbury, Connecticut.
Figure 7.
Trees root in crevices of columnar
basal, Giuffrida Park.
5
Fractured basalt blocks collect in enormous fans of talus at the base of the steep
exposures. These jumbles of sharp boulders lie at the angle of repose and thus are
highly unstable. As such, they tend to be colonized only slowly by plants, and their
upper reaches can remain open expanses for decades. However, these talus slopes
create their own microclimate that tends to foster unique vegetation at their bases.
Large boulders absorb the heat of the sun while shading all surfaces below them and
keeping them cool; ice from winter may persist long into the spring beneath talus. Cool
air, which is denser than warm air, sinks into the interstices of the talus slope in
downdrafts and is constantly replaced by warm air from above. This process draws in
warmer air toward the steep cliffs, some of which rises in updrafts as it contacts the
boundary layer around the solar-heated rock columns. Raptors (and occasional hang-
gliding enthusiasts) can be seen soaring on these thermals. This natural “air-
conditioning” circulation creates variable climates from the base to the summit of these
mountains.
Figure 8
. Talus slopes plunge into lakes at the Hanging Hills, Hubbard Park.
The sedimentary layers of the Metacomet Range hold their own fascination,
principally in the form of fossils. Arkose sandstone that was deposited in quiet waters
shows a rippled texture in places. Dinosaur footprints abound in certain strata,
frequently revealed by quarrying (trail users can view an example of these on display
near Mirror Lake in Hubbard Park, Meriden, Connecticut). Fossils of bony fish remain
on Totoket and Pistapaug Mountains in Durham, Connecticut, reminders of when fish
abounded in stagnant tropical lakes of the late Jurassic period.
6
While many miles of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail scramble over the striking
cliff-and-valley topography of trap rock in Connecticut, it is important to note that
southern portions (principally the Mattabesett sector) traverse bedrock of very different
types. Here, to the east of Metacomet Range, remnants of the ancient proto-Atlantic
Ocean that existed during the Devonian Period (400 million years ago) —
before
the
American and African plates had even joined — are visible. Squeezed at the impact
zone during the collision of continents, these rocks were heavily metamorphosed under
heat and pressure. Their complex, crumpled crystal structure renders them resistant to
erosion; thus, they form more rolling topography of ledges and low hills. Together,
these resistant gneisses and schists comprise the Iapetus terrane of Connecticut (see
Figure 2). Broomstick Ledges, Mica Ledges, and Mt. Pisgah in Durham, Connecticut
exemplify the bedrock types of this terrane. These contrasts in bedrock geology
contribute to the diversity of landscapes and vegetation types that users of the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail encounter.
Figure 9
. Micaceous and pegmatite bedrock at Mica Ledges, Durham, Connecticut.
Glacial Geomorphology
Although the next 200 million years following formation of the Metacomet Range
were not without incident (notably the formation of the Connecticut River valley by
uplift), geologists tend to think of Pleistocene glaciation as the next Big Event affecting
this region of New England. Making multiple advances between 2.3 million and 16,000
years ago, ice sheets more than a mile deep covered Connecticut. Dragging enormous
quantities of sediment and rock over the summits of the Metacomet Range and other
local highlands, ice sheets rounded and scarified the bedrock surface; these scratches
7
are still visible on Metacomet summits today. Glacial erratics, large boulders
transported and strewn about by glaciers, are frequent features along the Trail. Glacial
till, the predominant soil type of the region, is a mixture of materials of varying size and
composition – from sand grains to boulders – brought and deposited by the expanding
and contracting rivers of ice. The emblematic stone walls of region (celebrated by
Thorson [2002] as “the signature of the interior New England landscape”) were
painstakingly created by farmers sorting bothersome rocks from their till. The
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail also visits many kettle ponds, formed by abandoned ice
blocks trapped under mounds of till, which melted in place to form flooded depressions.
As the ice sheet receded north, glacial meltwater poured into valleys, creating
extensive lakes where moraines (collections of dumped outwash) dammed the outlets
for water. One such debris dam, which formed a glacial lake covering the area around
present-day Avon and Simsbury, Connecticut, caused the Farmington River to divert its
formerly southward course eastward through a gap in the Holyoke Basalt in Tarriffville,
Connecticut. Water found the only outlet available through this gap, and over the past
16,000 has eroded the deep, vertically-sided Tarriffville Gorge. The Metacomet Trail
and its side trails yields a spectacular view of the gorge from the rim; alternatively,
hikers can descend to river level, where the Farmington still courses with gusto through
the narrows (Class II and III rapids attract whitewater specialists). The gorge walls
show all three layers of basalt flow in vertical exposure: a unique glimpse across almost
100 million years of geological history (Wetherell 1992). Elsewhere, the Metacomet-
Mattabesett Trail offers views across miles of glacial lake valleys, where agriculture still
takes advantage of the rich alluvial clays and loams left behind.
Figure 10
. View of farm field on rolling coastal outwash, Guilford, Connecticut.
Soils
Soil types along the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail vary largely in respect to the
country rock from which they are derived (Reynolds 1979). The summits of the traprock
ridges and talus slopes are characterized by very shallow, nearly xeric soils that are
highly weathered by wind; these thin soils hold little water and have little organic matter.
Crevices among the traprock fissures and talus can harbor pockets of slightly deeper
and moister soil; frequent ant colonies further enrich the meager soil. These soils are
8
mapped generally as Hollis-rock outcrop and Holyoke-rock outcrop complexes
(Reynolds 1979). The more moderate, east-facing slopes immediately below the open
summits support deeper soils formed from the weathering of basalt or arkose
sandstone. Both soil types are abundant in Calcium and Magnesium relative to most
other Connecticut soils — two limiting nutrients that are essential for plant growth and
support an unusual array of calcium-loving plants in the region. However, studies from
the Metacomets in Massachusetts reveal that these parent materials give rise to soils
that differ subtly in composition, with implications for the vegetation that colonizes them.
Arkose-derived soils, for example, are more acidic, and somewhat lower in organic
content, Calcium, Magnesium, Manganese and Zinc than basalt-derived soils (Searcy et
al. 2003). A higher number of species of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants is
associated with basalt than with arkose (Searcy et al. 2003), and a significant number of
species predictably occur on basalt. Thus, contrasting assemblages of plants that
specialize on these subtly different soil types are juxtaposed along the Trail. Deeper,
mesic soils that accumulate at the toe of talus slopes are the richest of all in mineral
nutrients and organic matter. These soils are generally classified as Wethersfield loam
and Ludlow silt loam (Reynolds 1979).
Soils derived from the gneisses and schists of the Iapetus terrane are generally
more acidic and lower in mineral nutrients than soils of Metacomet origin, and support
very different suites of plant species (e.g., fewer calciphiles). These rocky tills and their
associated natural communities share more affinity with soils to the east and north in
Massachusetts.
At lower, valley elevations along
the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail, soils
are dominated by glacial till, alluvial silts
and clays (in former glacial lakes),
deltaic outwash (gravels and sands
forming fans at the border of former
glacial lakes), and poorly drained
wetland mucks. Peatlands and highly
acidic, gleyed soils, more common in
colder areas to the north near Mount
Monadnock, are rare in this sector of the
Trail except in cool, saturated pockets.
Were the trail to extend to the coast in
Guilford, Connecticut, it would traverse
glacial outwash in the form of sandy
beaches and rocky subterminal and
lateral moraines.
Figure 11
. General soil types associated with
the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail in Connecticut
(Trail overlay in black). Source: University of
Connecticut datalayers.
9
Hydrology
Fissuring and faulting of the basaltic bedrock, and interbedding with sedimentary
layers, creates complex drainage patterns along the Metacomet Range. Precipitation
evaporates quickly from the exposed summits. Off the summit, water drains rapidly
through talus and glacial till, finding routes through bedrock crevices until it encounters
impermeable strata. Water tends to collect at the surface along these bedrock shelves,
forming vernal pools (seasonally flooded depressions), seeps, and more extensive
wetlands. Large wetland complexes are a common feature along the western flank of
the Metacomet mountains (see Figure 1). Ponds and lakes also tend to form along
major fault lines: Lake Quonnipaug and Myer Huber Pond, both visible from the Trail at
Bluff Head in Guilford, Connecticut, overlie eastern border faults of the Central valley.
Figure 12
. Vernal pool along Mattabesett Trail. Wood frog egg masses are visible in foreground.
Figure 13
. Myer Huber Pond, visible from Bluff Head, Guilford, Connecticut.
10
Groundwater percolates downhill, west to east through basalt strata; thus, the
valleys associated with the Metacomet Range often constitute important recharge areas
for drinking water. Valleys formerly covered by glacial lakes are particularly valuable
recharge areas, as deep coverage of clay and gravel protects aquifers to a certain
degree from direct surface contamination. Clusters of aquifer protection areas and
corresponding wellhead fields occur all along the flanks of the Metacomet Range. No
fewer than 8 drinking water reservoirs occur in association with the range (Lareau 1997
and inspection of topographic maps). Relatively undisturbed, forested slopes also help
to maintain good water quality in the Central lowlands of Connecticut.
Figure 14
. Diagram illustrating aquifer recharge. Source: Shaw (1989).
Figure 15
. Well heads (yellow) and aquifer protection areas (blue areas delineated) in proximity to the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail (Trail overlay in green). Town boundaries are also shown.
Source: University of Connecticut datalayers.
11
Climate and Air Quality
Connecticut enjoys an equable climate, with an even distribution of precipitation
among the four seasons, and precipitation falling, on average, one out of every three
days (Connecticut State Climate Center 2004a). Connecticut lies in the prevailing
westerlies of the middle latitudes of North America, which bring frequent fronts and
storm centers over the state throughout the year. Central Connecticut is primarily
influenced by continental air masses originating in subarctic North America (bearing
cold, dry air) and the Gulf of Mexico (bearing warm, moist air). The state also
occasionally experiences severe winter storms (“nor‘easters”) originating from the
Atlantic. Thunderstorms occur on 20-30 days per year, with severe activity such as
downbursts and hail occurring infrequently. Extreme weather events such as tornadoes
and hurricanes are very rare (occurring on decadal time scales). Connecticut typically
attains 55-60% of available sunshine (Connecticut State Climate Center 2004a). Snow
can fall from October to April, but is usually concentrated between December and
February. The statewide mean annual temperature is 48.47
o
F, and has been
increasing 0.14
o
F per decade (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2004).
Local climate varies between the northern and southern portions of the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail, with contrasts in precipitation and temperature being most
significant during the winter months. For example, Windsor Locks (near the northern
end of the Metacomet Trail in Connecticut) has a mean December temperature of
30.9
o
F, 1,051 heating degree days, and total snowfall of 8.5 inches. Middletown,
Connecticut, in the heart of the Mattabesett Trail area, records mean December
temperatures of 32.9
o
F, 989 heating degree days, and 6.1 inches of snowfall
(Connecticut State Climate Center 2004b, 2004c). Average annual precipitation also
varies considerably from north to south along the trail, with less than 44 inches falling in
the northern tier around the Metacomet Range, 48-53 inches recorded for middle New
Haven County, and drier conditions (46-48 inches) at the coastline.
Figure 16
. Map of Connecticut showing precipitation isoclines. Darker areas correspond to higher mean
annual precipitation amounts. Source: Connecticut State Climate Center datalayers.
12
As noted above, users of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail also experience a
variety of microclimates as they proceed from the Central lowlands to mountain
summits. Due to the high heat capacity of dark basalt and the updrafts of warm air
conducted to the top of west-facing ridges, the summits tend to warm up earlier in the
spring and to remain warm longer into the autumn. The central Metacomet ridgetops
(e.g., Beseck, Higby, and Totoket Mountains) fall within the sector of the 50-51
o
F mean
annual temperature isopleths; this sector exhibits the earliest average date (April 2) of
extended daily temperatures exceeding 43
o
F (Brumbach 1965). Mean annual
temperature on the summit of Higby Mountain at about 900 feet elevation, for example,
is 55.2
o
F compared to 50.7
o
F at 370 feet at the Middletown climate monitoring station
(Ruf 1985a, b; Connecticut State Climate Center 2004c). Thus, a hiker climbing in
spring and summer experiences warmer temperatures at higher elevations. Forest
cover on the lower elevations fosters cooler conditions on the trail, and the bases of
talus slopes exhibit the coolest temperatures overall.
Air quality in the Central valley is good to moderate (Environmental Protection
Agency 2004). The number of days for which overall air quality is unhealthy or harmful
for sensitive groups is generally 15 and under in Hartford and New Haven Counties
(Table 1). Principle pollutants of concern are ozone and particulates, largely originating
from car exhaust and industry. The Central valley can be subject to short-lived
inversions during the year, during which air masses and pollutants can stagnate in the
area. These brief episodes can result in reduced long-distance visibility. Middletown’s
Northeast Utilities power station is considered one of Connecticut’s “Filthy Five” plants;
until recently, its emissions were permitted to exceed the 1972 Clean Air Act. However,
these exemptions are slated to be discontinued, so its emissions should decrease in
coming years (Lobel et al. 2002). Pollution is more severe in the southern sectors of the
state, influenced by large urban centers to the southwest.
Table 1. Mean Air Quality Conditions
(Year 2003 Data summarized from EPA 2004)
Note: these data are obtained from urban monitoring stations.
Air Quality Indicator
EPA
Standard
Hartford
County
New Haven
County
Number of days air is rated unhealthy for
sensitive groups
- 7 15
Number of days air is rated as broadly
unhealthy
- 0 5
Carbon monoxide (8-hour average)
9 ppm
10.1 ppm
2.7 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide (annual mean)
0.053 ppm
0.017 ppm
0.025 ppm
Ozone (8-hour average)
0.08 ppm
0.097 ppm
0.134 ppm
Sulfur dioxide (annual mean)
0.03 ppm
0.004 ppm
0.005 ppm
Particulates < 2.5 µm (annual mean)
15.0 µg/m
3
13.0
µg/m
3
17.9
µg/m
3
Particulates < 10 µm (annual mean)
50 µg/m
3
38
µg/m
3
41
µg/m
3
13
Biological Richness of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail
Because the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail visits such varied and unusual terrain,
straddling a diversity of bedrock types and landforms, it is home to a concentration of
plant and animal species, several of which are state-listed or globally rare. In fact, the
Trail and its environs constitute a “hotspot” in the state and the northeast for rare and
declining species. Overall, the Trail visits 3 of Connecticut’s 13 most imperiled
ecosystems, namely traprock summits, coastal beaches, and large riparian systems
(Metzler and Wagner 1998). Rare species and exemplary uncommon natural
community types occur all along the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail. Intensive surveys for
biological diversity have identified many clusters of rare species occurrences in this
area (e.g., Dowhan and Craig 1976, Moorhead 2003).
Figure 17
. Clusters of rare plant occurrences in New England. Town boundaries for New England states
are shown. Shading of towns corresponds to the number of extant rare plant occurrences recorded for
each town; darker shading corresponds to higher numbers of occurrences. Red arrow points to general
area of Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail in Connecticut. Source: Farnsworth (2003).
14
From data provided by the Connecticut Natural Diversity Database, 132 records
of rare species or natural community types exist within a 1,000-foot buffer of the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail. The majority of occurrences (76 or 58%) are extant. Of
these, 15 (11%) have received an element occurrence rank of “A,” “AB,” or “B” from the
state Natural Heritage Program, indicating they show good to excellent viability on
account of population size or intact habitat context. Another 40 are ranked “E” (extant
only with no further information) or are relatively new discoveries that have not been
evaluated for viability as yet. Twenty-one populations (16%) are regarded as more
precarious (ranked “BC” to “D”). Fifty-six occurrences are ranked as state-historical
(SH) and are known only from observations predating 1975. Several of these historical
records may still be in existence in the area, but have not necessarily been searched for
systematically.
Figure 18
. Occurrences of state-listed plants and animals along the existing Trail route (Trail overlay in
red). Town boundaries are also shown. Dots correspond to localities of known extant occurrences, to 1-
minute precision. Green=plants, blue=birds, red=area of unique natural significance; pink=amphibians
and reptiles; brown=fish. Source: Connecticut Natural Diversity Data Base.
15
Extant occurrences include 1 species of turtle, 2 snake species, 3 salamander
species, 1 mussel, 1 species of bat, 1 butterfly, 1 rare fish, 4 species of birds, 30 plant
species, and 3 rare community types, two of which are considered globally imperiled or
vulnerable (G2 or G3) by NatureServe. These are given below, along with their element
occurrence ranks and global conservation ranks (NatureServe Explorer 2004). In
addition, 6 rare insect species, 1 turtle, 1 bat, and 11 plants have been identified (either
through historical records or through recent biological inventory) from similar habitats
within 10 miles of the trail. These have a reasonable likelihood of inhabiting the areas
along the trail; likewise, the trail can offer alternative or buffer habitat for these species.
Three of these species (2 plants and a bat species) are ranked as globally imperiled
(G2) by NatureServe.
A 2001 Biodiversity Day survey in Guilford identified an additional 46 rare
species in proximity to proposed trail extension routes. These included a number of
coastal species that do not venture inland. Three insect species, 19 bird species, 1 bat,
and 13 plant species were unique to this sector and are listed as state-rare.
Table 2. Rare species and natural features of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail
Data provided by the Connecticut Natural Diversity Database, Fitzgerald (2001), and
Menunkatuck Audubon Society (2001)
Species or Technical Name
Common Name
State EO
Rank
Global
Rank
Year Last
Observed
NATURAL FEATURES
Area of unique natural
significance
Fossil fish bed
A
Not ranked
1982
Subacidic cold talus forest/
woodland
B
Not
ranked
1989
Subacidic rocky summit/outcrop
B
G2
1984
Subacidic rocky summit/outcrop
B
G2
1982
Subacidic cold talus forest/
woodland
BC
Not
ranked
1987
Subacidic rocky summit/outcrop
BC
G2
1991
Poor fen
C
G3
1981
Subacidic rocky summit/outcrop
No data
G2
No data
Subacidic rocky summit/outcrop
C
G2
1987
Subacidic rocky summit/outcrop
E
G2
1984
ANIMALS
Agkistrodon contortix
Copperhead
Not ranked
G5
No data
Ambystoma jeffersonianum
Jefferson Salamander
A
G4
2000
Ambystoma jeffersonianum
Jefferson Salamander
E
G4
1999
Ambystoma jeffersonianum
Jefferson Salamander
E
G4
1986
Ambystoma jeffersonianum
Jefferson Salamander
E
G4
1998
Ambystoma laterale
Blue-spotted Salamander
E
G5
1982
Ambystoma laterale
Blue-spotted Salamander
E
G5
1980
Anthocharis midea
Falcate orange-tip butterfly
E
G5
2004
Crotalus horridus
Timber Rattlesnake
H
G4
1943
Eremophila alpestris
Horned Lark
H
G5
1976
Falco peregrinus
Peregrine Falcon
H
G4
1935
Falco peregrinus
Peregrine Falcon
H
G4
1934
16
Table 2. Rare species and natural features of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail
Data provided by the Connecticut Natural Diversity Database, Fitzgerald (2001), and
Menunkatuck Audubon Society (2001)
Species or Technical Name
Common Name
State EO
Rank
Global
Rank
Year Last
Observed
Falco peregrinus
Peregrine Falcon
H
G4
1940
Hemidactylium scutatum
Four-toed salamander
Not ranked
G5
No data
Lampetra appendix
American brook lamprey
E
G4
1997
Lasiurus cinereus
Hoary Bat
E
G5
1999
Ligumia lacustris
Eastern pondmussel
E
G4G5
No data
Passerculus sandwichensis
Savannah Sparrow
E
G5
1975
Pooecetes gramineus
Vesper Sparrow
E
G5
1997
Pooecetes gramineus
Vesper Sparrow
H
G5
1975
Terrapene carolina
Eastern Box Turtle
E
G5
1998
Terrapene carolina
Eastern Box Turtle
E
G5
1998
Terrapene carolina
Eastern Box Turtle
E
G5
2000
Terrapene carolina
Eastern Box Turtle
Not ranked
G5
1999
Terrapene carolina
Eastern Box Turtle
Not ranked
G5
1999
Thamnophis sauritus
Eastern Ribbon Snake
Not ranked
G5
1987
PLANTS
Agrimonia parviflora
Small-flowered Agrimony
H
G5
1919
Agrimonia parviflora
Small-flowered Agrimony
Not ranked
G5
2000
Alopecurus aequalis
Orange Foxtail
H
G5
1907
Aplectrum hyemale
Puttyroot H
G5
1897
Arenaria glabra
Smooth Mountain Sandwort A
G4
1997
Arenaria glabra
Smooth Mountain Sandwort B
G4
2002
Arenaria glabra
Smooth Mountain Sandwort F
G4
1989
Arenaria glabra
Smooth Mountain Sandwort H
G4
1914
Arenaria macrophylla
Large-leaved Sandwort
CD
G4
2003
Arenaria macrophylla
Large-leaved Sandwort
F
G4
1995
Asclepias purpurascens
Purple Milkweed
H
G5?
1916
Asclepias purpurascens
Purple Milkweed
H
G5?
1900
Asclepias purpurascens
Purple Milkweed
H
G5?
1900
Asclepias purpurascens
Purple Milkweed
H
G5?
1902
Asplenium ruta-muraria
Wallrue Spleenwort
H
G5
1947
Asplenium ruta-muraria
Wallrue Spleenwort
H
G5
1901
Aster x herveyi
Hervey's Aster
H
1905
Carex hirsutella
Sedge B
G5
2000
Carex hirsutella
Sedge E
G5
1998
Carex hirsutella
Sedge E
G5
2000
Carex hitchcockiana
Hitchcock's Sedge
E
G5
1999
Carex hitchcockiana
Hitchcock's Sedge
E
G5
1998
Carex hitchcockiana
Hitchcock's Sedge
E
G5
1988
Carex lupuliformis
False Hop Sedge
BC
G4
2002
Carex lupuliformis
False Hop Sedge
C
G4
2000
Carex lupuliformis
False Hop Sedge
E
G4
2000
Carex oligocarpa
Eastern Few-fruit Sedge
CD
G4
1997
Carex oligocarpa
Eastern Few-fruit Sedge
E
G4
1997
Carex squarrosa
Sedge E
G4G5
1994
Carex squarrosa
Sedge H
G4G5
1917
Carex squarrosa
Sedge Not
ranked
G4G5
2001
Carex typhina
Sedge AB
G5
2000
17
Table 2. Rare species and natural features of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail
Data provided by the Connecticut Natural Diversity Database, Fitzgerald (2001), and
Menunkatuck Audubon Society (2001)
Species or Technical Name
Common Name
State EO
Rank
Global
Rank
Year Last
Observed
Carex typhina
Sedge H
G5
1913
Carex willdenowii
Willdenow's Sedge
E
G5
2000
Carex willdenowii
Willdenow's Sedge
H
G5
1907
Chamaelirium luteum
Devil’s bit lily
D
G5
2000
Coeloglossum viride
var.
virescens
Long-bracted
Green
Orchid
H
G5T5
1895
Corydalis flavula
Yellow Corydalis
A
G5
2002
Corydalis flavula
Yellow Corydalis
A
G5
2002
Corydalis flavula
Yellow Corydalis
A
G5
2002
Cuphea viscosissima
Blue Waxweed
H
G5?
1913
Cypripedium parviflorum
Yellow Lady's-slipper
E
G5
2002
Deschampsia caespitosa
Tufted Hairgrass
H
G5
1929
Desmodium glabellum
Dillen Tick-trefoil
C
G5
2002
Dicentra canadensis
Squirrel-corn B
G5
2003
Dicentra canadensis
Squirrel-corn H
G5
1943
Dicentra canadensis
Squirrel-corn H
G5
1935
Diplazium pycnocarpon
Narrow-leaved Glade Fern
H
G5
1873
Diplazium pycnocarpon
Narrow-leaved Glade Fern
H
G5
1914
Dryopteris goldiana
Goldie's Fern
C
G4
1999
Dryopteris goldiana
Goldie's Fern
H
G4
1898
Dryopteris goldiana
Goldie's Fern
H
G4
1910
Dryopteris goldiana
Goldie's Fern
H
G4
1914
Elymus trachycaulus
ssp.
subsecundus
Slender Wheatgrass
C
G5T5
2002
Elymus trachycaulus
ssp.
subsecundus
Slender
Wheatgrass
C
G5T5
2002
Equisetum pratense
Meadow Horsetail
H
G5
1900
Goodyera repens
var.
ophioides
Dwarf Rattlesnake Plantain
H
G5
1904
Goodyera repens
var.
ophioides
Dwarf Rattlesnake Plantain
H
G5
1894
Hydrastis canadensis
Golden-seal BC
G4
2001
Hydrastis canadensis
Golden-seal H
G4
1899
Linnaea borealis
var.
americana
Twinflower
E
G5T5
2002
Linum intercursum
Sandplain Flax
H
G4
1900
Liparis liliifolia
Lily-leaved Twayblade
D
G5
2001
Lygodium palmatum
Climbing Fern
H
G4
1917
Malaxis unifolia
Green Adder's-mouth
H
G5
1902
Megalodonta beckii
Water-marigold H
G4G5
1910
Megalodonta beckii
Water-marigold H
G4G5
1905
Moneses uniflora
One-flower Wintergreen
H
G5
1949
Opuntia humifusa
Eastern Prickly-pear
D
G5
2002
Orontium aquaticum
Golden Club
H
G5
1902
Panax quinquefolius
American Ginseng
H
G4
1898
Panax quinquefolius
American Ginseng
H
G4
1898
Panax quinquefolius
American Ginseng
H
G4
1893
Paronychia fastigiata
Hairy Forked Chickweed
H
G5
1916
Platanthera dilatata
Tall White Bog Orchid
H
G5
1900
Platanthera hookeri
Hooker Orchid
H
G5
1902
Platanthera hookeri
Hooker Orchid
H
G5
1896
18
Table 2. Rare species and natural features of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail
Data provided by the Connecticut Natural Diversity Database, Fitzgerald (2001), and
Menunkatuck Audubon Society (2001)
Species or Technical Name
Common Name
State EO
Rank
Global
Rank
Year Last
Observed
Podostemum ceratophyllum
Threadfoot E
G5
2002
Polygala nuttallii
Nuttall's Milkwort
B
G5
1997
Polymnia canadensis
Small-flowered Leafcup
A
G5
2002
Populus heterophylla
Swamp Cottonwood
H
G5
No data
Populus heterophylla
Swamp Cottonwood
H
G5
1924
Potentilla arguta
Tall Cinquefoil
BC
G5
2001
Potentilla arguta
Tall Cinquefoil
C
G5
2002
Potentilla arguta
Tall Cinquefoil
E
G5
2001
Potentilla arguta
Tall Cinquefoil
E
G5
1992
Potentilla arguta
Tall Cinquefoil
H
G5
1941
Potentilla arguta
Tall Cinquefoil
H
G5
1897
Pycnanthemum clinopodioides
Basil Mountain-mint
H
G2
1902
Ribes rotundifolium
Wild Currant
E
G5
2003
Sagittaria cuneata
Waputo H
G5
1933
Salix pedicellaris
Bog Willow
H
G5
1900
Sporobolus compositus
var
.
compositus
Dropseed E
G5T5
2000
Sporobolus heterolepis
Northern Dropseed
C
G5
1994
Stellaria borealis
Northern Stitchwort
CD
G5
2001
Stellaria borealis
Northern Stitchwort
H
G5
1932
Trisetum spicatum
var.
molle
Spiked False Oats
CD
G5
2002
OTHER SPECIES FOUND NEARBY IN SIMILAR HABITAT
ANIMALS
Asterocampa celtis
Hackberry butterfly
No data
G5
No data
Oligia chlorostigma
Noctuid moth
No data
G5 No
data
Cicindela duodecimguttata
Twelve-spot tiger beetle
No data
G5 No
data
Cicindela rufiventris
Red-bellied tiger beetle
No data
G5 No
data
Rhodoecia aurantiago
Aureolaria seed borer
No data
G4 No
data
Eumeces fasciatus
Five-lined skink (lizard)
No data
G5 No
data
Clemmys insculpta
Wood turtle
No data
G4 No
data
Myotis sodalis
Indiana bat
No data
G2 No
data
PLANTS
Aristolochia serpentaria
Virginia snakeroot
No data
G5 No
data
Cheilanthes lanosa
Hairy lip-fern
No data
G5 No
data
Draba reptans
Whitlow-grass No
data
G5 No
data
Houstonia longifolia
Longleaf bluet
No data
G4G5 No
data
Lespedeza repens
Creeping bush-clover
No data
G5 No
data
Oxalis violacea
Violet wood sorrel
No data
G5 No
data
Pedicularis lanceolata
Swamp lousewort
No data
G5 No
data
Plantago virginica
Hoary Plaintain
No data
G5 No
data
Pycnanthemum clinopodioides
Basil mountain mint
No data
G2 No
data
Pyncnanthemum torrei
Torrey’s mountain mint
No data
G2 No
data
Senecio pauperculus
Ragwort No
data
G5 No
data
19
Table 2. Rare species and natural features of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail
Data provided by the Connecticut Natural Diversity Database, Fitzgerald (2001), and
Menunkatuck Audubon Society (2001)
Species or Technical Name
Common Name
State EO
Rank
Global
Rank
Year Last
Observed
ADDITIONAL SPECIES RECORDED FOR GUILFORD (POTENTIAL TRAIL EXTENSION AREAS)
ANIMALS
Cicindela tranquebarica
Dark-bellied tiger beetle
No data
G5 2001
Hesperus baltimorensis
Rove beetle
No data
No rank
2001
Abagrotis nefascia benjamini
Coastal heathland cutworm
No data
G4T3 2001
Ardea alba
Great egret
No data
G5 2001
Egretta thula
Snowy egret
No data
G5 2001
Egretta caerulea
Little blue heron
No data
G5 2001
Ixobrychus exilis
Least bittern
No data
G5 2001
Plegadis falcinellus
Glossy ibis
No data
G5 2001
Circus cyaneus
Northern harrier
No data
2001
Accipiter striatus
Sharp-shinned hawk
No data
2001
Accipiter cooperii
Cooper’s hawk
No data
2001
Buteo lineatus
Red-shouldered hawk
No data
2001
Falco sparverius
American kestrel
No data
2001
Rallus elegans
King rail
No data
G4 2001
Haematopus palliatus
American oystercatcher
No data
2001
Catoptrohporus semipalmatus
Willet No
data
2001
Sterna hirundo
Common tern
No data
2001
Chordeiles minor
Nighthawk No
data
G5 2001
Progne subis
Purple martin
No data
2001
Ammodramus caudacutus
Saltmarsh sharp-tailed
sparrow
No data
G4
2001
Ammodramus maritimus
Seaside sparrow
No data
G4 2001
Sturnelia magna
Eastern meadowlark
No data
2001
Lasiurus borealis
Eastern red bat
No data
G5 2001
PLANTS
Acalypha virginica
Three-seeded mercury
No data
G5 2001
Agastache nepetoides
Yellow giant hyssop
No data
G5 2001
Atriplex glabriuscula
Orach No
data
G4 2001
Cirsium horridulum
Yellow thistle
No data
G5 2001
Hottonia inflata
Featherfoil No
data
G4 2001
Liatris scariosa var. novae-
angliae
Northern blazing star
D
G5?TNR
2001
Lycopus amplectens
Clasping water-horehound
No data
G5 2001
Polygonum glaucum
Seabeach knotweed
No data
G3 2001
Prunus maritima
Beach plum
No data
G4 2001
Rubus cuneifolius
Sand blackberry
No data
G5 2001
Scirpus cylindricus
No
data
2001
Solidago rigida
Stiff goldenrod
No data
G5 2001
Viola canadensis
Canada violet
No data
G5 2001
Zizia aptera
Heart-leaved golden
alexanders C/D
G5
2001
20
Two major attributes explain the biological richness and significance of the
environments along the trail: 1) high diversity of landforms; 2) high connectivity among
parcels that are protected for conservation purposes or that suffer minimal lasting
damage from human disturbance.
Diversity of landforms
The Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail traverses an elevational gradient with
numerous climbs and descents from sea level to over 800 feet. It crosses traprock
ranges, valleys, open waters, streams, and wetlands, and a proposed extension of the
trail would bring hikers to coastal marshes, tidal rivers, and beaches. Together, these
features create habitat for a wide array of species.
The unique bedrock and topography of traprock ridges fosters contrasting
microenvironments: 1) a warm summit condition which, together with meager soil
development, creates a xeric habitat with affinities to more southerly ecoregions; and 2)
cold conditions at the base of talus slopes which, together with deeper soils influenced
by seeps, creates a cool, mesic habitat with affinities to more boreal ecoregions. Due to
this local climatic variability, and because this region of Connecticut lies at the juncture
of three ecoregions (Griffith et al. 2004), many of the plant species found along the
Metacomet Range reach the northern or southern boundaries of their range in this part
of Connecticut.
Viola canadensis, Linnaea borealis
var
. americana,
Dryopteris
goldiana,
and
Dicentra canadensis
are examples of plant species that occur at the
southern end of their New England ranges along the trail.
Corydalis flavula, Sporobolus
compositus
var.
compositus
, and
Opuntia humifusum
are examples of plant species that
hail from warmer regions. Insect species also reach their range limits here; for
example, the Falcate orange-tip butterfly (
Anthocharis midea
) extends northward to
New England only along the southern Metacomet Range, seeking specialized host
plants in the mustard family. It is a common and spectacular sight in early spring along
the ridgetop.
Figure 19
. Ecoregions of
Southern New England. The
Trail passes through the
Lower Worcester
Plateau/Eastern Connecticut
Upland, Connecticut Valley,
and Southern New England
Coastal Plains and Hills.
Source: Griffith et al. (2004).
21
Figure 20. Dryopteris goldiana,
a rare fern of
cool talus and seeps.
Figure 21. Corydalis flavula,
a rare herb of
warm summits.
Figure 23
. Falcate orange-tip butterfly.
Source: Robert J. Nuell, Jr.
The calcium- and magnesium-
rich soils associated with both these
habitats fosters the development of
diverse plant communities (Lapin 1992).
Calcareous bedrock occupies only a
small proportion of the New England
landscape (southern Connecticut,
Berkshire and Champlain Valleys,
isolated pockets in northern Maine);
thus, the calciphilic vegetation types that
are concentrated along the Metacomet
Range are rare in the region and two
(poor fens – peatlands dominated by
ericaceous shrubs, and circumneutral
rocky summit outcrop – the glades and
balds of traprock summits) are
considered globally rare. Hence, many
of their characteristic plant species are
also listed as Threatened or
Endangered in Connecticut (and other
New England states).
Figure 22
. Red cedar (
Juniperus virginiana
) is a
characteristic member of the summit bald
community.
22
Figure 24
. Typical summit glade, dominated by hickory (
Carya
spp.), white ash (
Fraxinus americana
),
and oak (
Quercus
spp.), with a park-like understory of sedges (principally
Carex pensylvanica
), grasses,
and sparse herbaceous dicots.
Figure 25
. Upper talus slope of Mount Higby,
with a profusion of columbine (
Aquilegia
canadensis
) in bloom.
Figure 26
. Base of talus slope at Totoket
Mountain, with northern-affinity herbaceous
species (
Aralia nudicaulis
, Wild sarsaparilla).
23
Areas underlain by more acidic bedrock support hemlock (
Tsuga canadensis
),
pine (
Pinus strobus
), and oak (
Quercus
spp.) forests with a well-developed shrub layer
of mountain laurel (
Kalmia latifolia
) and witch hazel (
Hamamelis virginiana
), and a
sparser herbaceous understory of blueberry (
Vaccinium
spp.), wintergreen (
Gaultheria
procumbens
), trailing arbutus (
Epigaea repens
), and other species. Coastal oak forests
and brackish and salt marshes (dominated by
Spartina
spp. [grasses] and
Scirpus
spp.
[bulrushes] predominate in the southern portions of the proposed Guilford extension.
Figure 27
. Oak, beech (
Fagus grandifolia
), and
red maple (
Acer rubrum
) forest with blueberries
(
Vaccinium
spp.) on acidic soils, Reservoir Loop
of Mattabesett Trail.
Figure 28
. Shrub layer of very old Mountain
laurel (
Kalmia latifolia
) at Reservoir Loop Trail.
Figure 29
. Brackish marsh (Spartina patens) and tidal river on projected southern extension of Trail,
Guilford, Connecticut.
24
Figure 30
. Turkey vulture
over Totoket Mountain.
A number of migratory raptor species also cruise
the thermals that rise along the steep, westward-facing
cliffs of the Range, and the Range functions as a major
flyway during the spring and autumn (Zalles et al. 2000).
The nearby Connecticut River functions as an important
stopover site for Nearctic-Neotropical migrants (U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). Once home to the
Peregrine falcon, the cliffs still offer ample nesting
habitat (in fact, falcons have returned to parts of the
Range in northern Massachusetts).
Talus slopes, wet areas, and warm ridgetops are home to unusual snake species
that are found in very few other sites in the northeast, including the Northern
Copperhead whose numbers have declined precipitously throughout the region. Talus
affords protected sites for denning and for sunning (Peterson and Fritsch 1986).
A variety of water features along the trail, including streams, ponds, vernal pools,
and seeps, supports several rare salamander and turtle species. Jefferson’s and
Spotted salamanders, for example, use vernal pools as their obligate breeding ground.
Clear streams with good water quality support rare populations of the native Brook Trout
and the American brook lamprey. Coastal mudflats and marshes attract numerous
birds, including several (e.g.,
Egretta thula
and
Ammodramus caudacutus
) that are less
common farther north. The East and West River Marsh areas of Guilford, Connecticut,
through which the new trail would access the coast, have been identified as a Globally
Important Birding Area by the Audubon Society — a critical staging and breeding site for
coastal birds. An estimated half of the world population of Saltmarsh sharp-tailed
sparrows (a state-listed species, see Table 2), breeds in southern New England, with a
sizable proportion of birds using these marshes, according to Partners in Flight.
Figure 31
. A young hiker discovers a painted turtle near the Trail. Source: Ann Colson.
25
Figure 32
. First Lake, Guilford, Connecticut.
Iron Brook, above this lake along proposed trail
route, contains one of a very few healthy native
Brook trout populations in central Connecticut.
Figure 34
. Nest holes abound on the Trail.
Figure 33
. Seven Falls, Middletown.
Connectivity of intact habitats
A high diversity of plant and animal species inhabit the Metacomet-Mattabesett
Trail corridor because it represents a continuous, relatively undisturbed (undeveloped)
swath of land over 100 miles long, comprising at least 20,000 acres. Despite a history
of land use that includes mining, grazing, and logging (see below) and its proximity to
urban areas, the forests and wetlands associated with the trail have not been subjected
to major degradation and, in fact, have largely recovered to healthy levels. Large,
contiguous tracts of deciduous and coniferous forest cover in the Connecticut River
watershed as a whole provide critical habitat for interior forest nesting birds (Anderson
and Merrill 1998). Twelve species of neotropical migrants using this watershed
(including 5 warbler species, 2 vireo species, Louisiana waterthrush, Grasshopper
sparrow, Yellow-breasted chat, Orchard oriole, and Blue-gray gnatchatcher) are largely
restricted to the Lower New England Ecoregion (Anderson and Merrill 1998). Large
mammals including bear, bobcat, mustelid species (minks, fishers), and bats also use
these large forested corridors. The Hoary bat (
Lasiurus cinereus
), recorded from near
the Trail (Table 2) requires habitat buffered from urban influences and with little
evidence of anthropogenic disturbance (Tuttle 1995). Large predatory snakes need
sizable home ranges on the order of hectares, and may move up to half a kilometer
away from nest sites (McCartney et al. 1988). Thus, the Metacomet Range is one of
only a handful of sustainable refugia for these species (Klemens 1993).
26
Figure 35
. Land cover types along the Trail (overlay in black).
Source: University of Connecticut datalayers.
A considerable proportion of the Trail and environs (over 25% of total trail length;
unpublished data) falls on land protected in fee or through easement by conservation
entities including the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, The Nature
Conservancy, and a host of local land trusts including the Berlin Land Trust, Cheshire
Land Trust, Farmington Land Trust, Guilford Land Conservation Trust, Haddam Land
Trust, Madison Land Conservation Trust, Middlesex Land Trust, Simsbury Land
Conservation Trust, Sufflield Land Conservancy, and the Wallingford Land Trust
(Fitzgerald 2001). State Parks and Forests traversed by the Metacomet-Mattabesett
Trail include: Black Pond Wildlife Management Area (Middlefield), Cockaponset State
Forest (Durham and Haddam), Lamentation Mountain State Park (Berlin), Millers Pond
State Park (Durham and Haddam), Penwood State Park (Bloomfield and Simsbury),
Talcott Mountain State Park (Avon, Bloomfield, and Simsbury), and Trimountain State
Park (Durham and Wallingford) (Leary 2004). Additional municipal and private parks
such as Hubbard Park (Meriden) and the Hill-Stead Museum (Farmington), extend the
level of protection and increase accessibility to portions of the Trail. Lands held by
regional water utilities comprise another significant sector of land (approximately 14% of
total trail length) that is kept relatively intact (aside from selective forestry) to protect
drinking water supplies.
27
Figure 36
. State parks and forests found along Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail.
Towns with Trail are outlined in orange. Adapted from Leary (2004).
Land Use along the Trail: Past and Present Influences on Natural Resources
Connecticut has been occupied by humans for at least 10,000 years (Keegan
and Keegan 1999), and human activity has had critical influences on the landscapes of
the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail. Native American activity was intense throughout
central Connecticut, with the Niantic tribes focused on the mouth of the Connecticut
River and the Mohegan-Pequot tribes inhabiting areas to the east (Sultzmann 1997).
Quinnipiac Indians were known to create settlements in the Branford and Guilford areas
(Camacho et al. 2002). Numerous Archaic and Woodland sites dated from 9,000 BP on
are documented from the region, particularly where stream tributaries meet the main
stem of large rivers like the Connecticut. Low, flat river terraces were preferentially
occupied during Spring to Fall, when foragers exploited rich shellfish beds and
anadromous fish (Juli 1994). Basalt was used for flint and arrowheads.
Figure 37
. Native American sites from the
Woodland Period. Source: Keegan and Keegan
(1999).
28
The name of the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail commemorates two important
tribes that once occupied the region. Chief Metacomet (aka “King Philip”), son of the
Wampanoag ally of the Pilgrims, Massasoit, is the trail’s most notorious namesake,
leading some of the most damaging attacks against white settlers throughout
Massachusetts and Connecticut in the 1670’s (Clapp and Kohl 1978). The
promontories of the Metacomet Range served as strategic lookout points for mounting
raids on the nascent towns of Connecticut. Legends, many apocryphal, ascribe natural
landmarks such as “King Phillip’s Cave” (a lava tunnel visible from the Trail at Talcott
Mountain) to famous battles between Native Americans and colonists.
Native Americans likely exerted profound local influences on the structure of
natural communities in the region, but their precise impacts are still being reconstructed
(Cronon 1983, Hall et al. 2002). Deer-hunting, fishing, and plant-gathering would have
been the predominant activities during the Woodland Period. Intentional burns may
have been used in limited ways to concentrate wildlife, or to promote growth of
blueberries or nut-bearing trees, but evidence for major fires with large-scale impacts on
forests is not conclusive (Parshall and Foster 2002). Pollen evidence (Hall et al. 2002)
suggests that forests during Native American occupation were dominated by chestnut
(
Castanea dentata
), oak (
Quercus
spp.), beech (
Fagus grandifolia
), hickory (
Carya
spp.), and pine (
Pinus
spp.), with chestnuts and hickories providing a major food
source. Sedentary agriculture did not commence until after 1,000 years BP, with some
tribes in central Connecticut planting corn, sunflowers, and squash (Keegan and
Keegan 1999). Cultivation would have required only limited land clearing using axes
and hoes (Keegan and Keegan 1999).
Europeans entered Connecticut in the 1630s, and large-scale land clearing,
homesteading, tilling, and grazing of the Connecticut River and Farmington River
valleys began in the 1650’s (Feder 1999). Intentional fires and logging became
widespread throughout the next century, transforming a largely forested landscape to a
pastoral one. This activity shifted forest composition to young, disturbance-tolerant
stands dominated by birch (
Betula
spp.), maple (
Acer
spp.), pine (
Pinus
spp.), cherry
(
Prunus
spp.), and poplar (
Populus
spp.). Many house foundations of the 1700’s were
built of trap rock collected from the bases of talus slopes along the Metacomet Range
(Lee 1985). Industrialization during the early 1800’s led to the construction of
innumerable dams on large and small rivers, providing hydro-energy for mills, and
altering the courses and flow dynamics of many waterways. Logging to provide wood
fuel for local foundries and other industries may have denuded some portions of the
Metacomet ridge from valley to summit. A large traprock quarry opened on East Rock
(New Haven, Connecticut) in 1810, and large-scale extraction of traprock to provide
crushed paving stone and brownstone for a large number of buildings in the Northeast
and beyond began in the 1850’s (Lee 1985).
The legacy of early colonial settlement and industrialization is preserved in
numerous historical sites along the Trail – from simple foundation holes to restored
landmarks that appear on the National Historic Register. One alternative route
proposed for the Trail extension through Guilford would include the nationally-
29
recognized, historic Clapboard Hill District. An archaeological preserve surrounds
“Hospital Rock” in Plainville, a monument to the quarantine at the site of colonial-era
Farmington and Hartford residents afflicted by smallpox. The Mattabesett Trail was
twice traveled by George Washington, once on his way to assume command of the new
American revolutionary army, and again in 1789 when he was elected President (Leary
2004). Local politicians have also made their marks on the Trail throughout the years,
creating, for example, the Selectman’s Stones monument at Mica Ledges in Durham,
Connecticut.
Figure 38
. Selectman’s Stones. Newly elected selectmen for the four towns that bordered at this site
were required to “peregrinate” town boundaries. They hauled engraved stones to this site as proof of
fulfilling their official obligations. Note engraved dates from the 1800’s.
In the 1830’s to 1950’s,
increasing urbanization, population
pressure, and large-scale exploitation of
the New England landscape stirred a
new aesthetic appreciation among the
populace for the remaining natural areas
of the region. Henry David Thoreau,
Ralph Waldo Emerson, and painters of
the emerging Hudson River School
(Thomas Cole, Thomas Charles Farrar,
William Henry Bartlett, and others)
extolled the virtues of nature in writings
and artwork. The painters in particular
flocked to the Metacomet Range to
capture its grandeur and views
(Doezema 2002). Interestingly, the
paintings of this time reveal the
mountains as some of the only forested
land in a sea of agriculture and rural
settlement, indicating that some of the
mountains may have provided a critical
refuge for plant and animal species for
hundreds of years.
Figure 39
. Classic painting by Thomas Cole,
View from Mt. Holyoke, Northampton,
Massachusetts, After a Thunderstorm (The
Oxbow)
, 1836.
30
Buildings dating from this period
began to spring up along the summits of
the Metacomet Range from
Massachusetts to Connecticut. The
historic Heublein Tower atop Talcott
Mountain, for example, was the fourth in
a series of towers built at the site from
1810 to 1914 (Leary 2004). Eminent
visitors to these landmarks made the
range famous; Mark Twain quoted his
friend, the Reverend Joseph Twichell
issuing the cry, “Just look at this
magnificent autumn landscape! Look at
it! Look at it! Feast your eyes on it!”
(Twain 1876). While the ridge was
never densely populated, it was (and
continues to be) a popular day-trip
destination for tourists, students, and
artists. This popularity created the
impetus for the establishment of a
protected system of hiking trails, among
the first of its kind in the United States.
Figure 40
. Castle Craig, a fanciful tower
constructed in 1900 of basalt, provides a
dramatic lookout over the Hanging Hills
of Meriden from an elevation of 976 feet.
Local hiking trails attracted visitors from medium-sized, decentralized urban
areas (Hartford, Meriden, New Haven, etc.) throughout the state. In the late 1800’s,
philanthropic industrialists donated large areas of land for parks and recreational areas
(Waterman and Waterman 1989). By 1895, the Connecticut Forestry Association (later
called the Connecticut Forest and Park Association) formed with a mission to preserve
woodlands, and the state of Connecticut formed a park commission in 1913. Many of
the protected areas cobbled together during this time were very small, but emphasized
the same kind of views that had thrilled Twain and many others. Frederick W.
Kilbourne, a Meriden resident, pioneered the idea of a “Trap Rock Trail” to span the
distance from Long Island Sound to the Massachusetts border in 1918, and Edgar Laing
Heermance took the project forward. By 1929, the Connecticut Forest and Park
Association devised its first Trails Committee, and the concept of the Blue Trail system
was inaugurated (Woodside 2004). The cumulative effect of this land protection and
outreach was the creation of a “continuous hiking trail of almost 50 miles right up
against the most densely populated heart of Connecticut, threading between and
around the cities of Meriden, Berlin, Wallingford, Durham, and Middletown” (Waterman
and Waterman 1989: 438), a corridor of green in an urbanized context unlike any other
31
trail before it. Socially, this trail system permitted a burgeoning number of recreation-
seekers to gain a new appreciation for Connecticut’s natural ecosystems, and engaged
a new class of volunteers in construction and maintenance. An utterly new literary
genre – the trail guide – was invented to educate trail users about their environs (e.g.,
Longwell and Dana 1932), and the Trail received a great deal of attention in the popular
press of the time (e.g. Anonymous 1932, 1933). Ecologically, the formation of the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail led to the long-term conservation of dozens of contiguous
miles of relatively intact habitat.
Today, the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail passes through areas that are largely
forested (see Figure 35). A qualitative analysis of digital ortho-photo quads
(Farnsworth, unpublished data) indicates that over 70% of the trail passes through
deciduous or hardwood-hemlock stands 20-100 years in age, interspersed with
wetlands, fields, and residential areas. Areas surrounding the Trail are primarily rural,
suburban, and exurban. Recreation heads the list of major activities within the trail
corridor, but at least seven quarries still operate along the Metacomet ridge (The
Mineral Database 2004). Selective forestry, usually by Municipal landowners (e.g.,
Water Commissions) or state agencies, continues on small scales (typically cuts of 20
acres at a time or less).
Threats to the natural resource values of the Trail
The natural resources found along the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail are
principally intact, but face several threats from both human activity and natural agents of
disturbance. These factors are discussed in priority order in terms of the amount of
area they impact, their influence on the quality of the trail experience, and the
immediacy of threat. Several large-scale forces, such as hurricanes and global change,
are mentioned as potential threats and are treated only in more general terms.
Development
Development of land adjacent to the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail poses the
most serious threat to the quality and continued existence of the Trail and to the
integrity of the region’s natural resources. The population of central Connecticut in the
19 towns encompassing the Trail was 454,890 according to the 2000 census, and rates
of population increase averaged 7.6% between 1990 and 2000 across these towns
(Connecticut Office of Policy and Management 2003). Suffield, Durham, and
Farmington showed the highest rates of growth (from 15-18%). Building permits (an
index of housing starts) have increased more rapidly than population, rising 26.0% from
2003-2004 (Connecticut Department of Labor 2004). The Metacomet Range is an
attractive place to site residences because of its views and its convenient proximity to
highways and cities. Several developments now cluster densely along the bases of
traprock ridges (displacing formerly rich talus habitat and increasing the risk of human-
snake contact, among other problems). Road-building and widening along the base of
the Metacomet Range to accommodate increased vehicular traffic (e.g., along Route 66
in Middletown) has also contributed to habitat destruction.
32
Figure 41
. Aerial photograph with arrows highlighting development, taking place over several years (left
to right: housing; road building across ridge; golf course), that has encroached on the Metacomet Trail (in
red) in Berlin/Southington. Note narrowing of forested habitat toward the northeast (blue arrow).
Homebuilding has been less frequent to date at higher elevations along the
range, principally because of the formidable engineering challenges of constructing
roads and houses on steep, shallow-to-bedrock slopes and in permitting on-site septic
on soils of the Hollis and Holyoke Rock Outcrop Complexes. Enabling legislation
(Public Act 95-239) allows towns to zone their ridgetops for viewshed protection by
limiting or prohibiting building, and at least five trailside towns to date (e.g., Southington,
Farmington, Middlefield, Durham, and Meriden) have created overlay ordinances
designed to protect the viewshed of traprock ridges. Likewise, the towns of Meriden,
Middletown, and Berlin formulated the Tri-Town Land Use Plan (1994) to address the
need to maintain and protect open space on the traprock ridges (particularly
Lamentation Mountain and Chauncey Peak). In 1998, 17 traprock ridge towns in
Connecticut signed the Metacomet Ridge Conservation Compact to confirm their joint
commitment to protect the range. However, pressure to build on the range has
increased in recent years and some local property owners have objected to legislation
limiting building rights on private land. Protests by individual landowners have led to
temporary trail closures. A 1997 attempt to regulate clear-cutting, quarrying, and
development on the ridge in Middletown failed (Lareau 1997).
Disturbance on these shallow-to-bedrock ridges would irreversibly alter habitat
for both plants and animals inhabiting the range. Vegetation regrowth is severely
limited by soil availability at the summit and would be slow in the wake of clearing.
Large-scale removal of forest and expansion of paved surfaces would impair the
recharge capacity of the range, with implications for water quality of associated aquifers.
Disruption of habitats would place rare plant and animal species in danger of local
33
extirpation. Such development would permit intensified, unregulated access by people,
pets, and all-terrain vehicles to the Trail, increasing the risk of harming plant and animal
species, the probability of invasive species introductions, and overall damage to the
Trail itself.
There have also been several proposals to construct cell phone and radio
communications towers along the Metacomet summits and elsewhere along the Trail
(e.g., along Talcott Mountain). Road construction to service towers, and herbicide use
to maintain clear areas around the tower would have negative impacts on local plants
and animals, as discussed above. Likewise, towers may pose a collision risk to
migratory birds, especially the raptors that seasonally frequent the range in large
numbers (Kerlinger 1989).
Quarrying
Quarrying for traprock has taken
place since the early 1800’s in
Connecticut, and the level of quarrying
intensity (in terms of economic output)
has remained relatively stable since the
1970’s (Fitzgerald 2001). Although the
Connecticut Department of Labor (2004)
projects a 4.3% decrease in mining-
related employment statewide in the
coming year, the demand for quarried
traprock may be increasing as much as
11% per year (Lareau 1997).
Contemporary quarries on the range are
typically large operations impacting on
average several tens to over one-
hundred acres. Quarrying entails clear-
cutting of forest, removal of substantial
amounts of bedrock (estimates range
from 7.5 to 20 million tons of traprock
annually), permanent changes in
topography, alteration of hydrology,
additional land for disposal of waste
materials, dust generation, and noise.
One such quarry operates directly
adjacent to the Metacomet-Mattabesett
Trail at Chauncey Peak in Meriden,
Connecticut. The Trail has been moved
to accommodate mining and will soon
have to be relocated further (personal
observation).
In proximity to the mine, the hiking
experience is much diminished and
damage to the plant and animal
communities (through dust
accumulation, noise disturbance, and
outright destruction) is obvious.
However, evidence of disturbance
becomes much less visible beyond 30
feet away from the quarry edge.
Negotiation of conservation easements
and restoration strategies with the
largest quarry owners will be essential
to sustaining the continued existence of
the Trail and to minimize further harm to
natural systems and aquifers.
Figure 42
. Quarry near Chauncey Peak within
close view of the Trail.
34
Trampling, rogue trails, and Off-Road Vehicle use
The Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail is well-marked and regularly reblazed by
volunteers. While the vast majority of users respect designated trail boundaries, some
evidence of unauthorized uses was found during reconnaissance in Spring, 2004.
Particularly popular areas for walkers, e.g., Ragged Mountain, showed significant trail
widening at lower elevations, because hikers and trailbike riders use a variety of
alternative paths. This proliferation of paths can disorient hikers (Higbee 2003). A few
sites with attractive rock-climbing areas also have rogue trails that lead to staging sites.
Such trails can harm rare plant populations. At Mount Higby, for example, an offshoot
trail leading to a talus overlook crosses through a population of the State-listed plant,
yellow corydalis (
Corydalis flavula
). Certain plant species, such as the rare
Potentilla
arguta
, tend to cluster closely along trail margins (possibly because of increased light
availability at trailside) and would be eliminated by trampling or trail widening (William
Moorhead, Consulting Botanist, personal communication). Less than 5% of the trail
length surveyed during this reconnaissance was affected by this activity.
Figure 43
. Trail widening due to foot and bike traffic at Ragged Mountain.
Off-road vehicle tracks were seen on a larger sector of the trail (approximately
20% of the trail mileage surveyed by the author during 2004 showed some impact; note
that this is a qualitative visual estimate). In fact, ORVs, motorcycles, and other vehicles
have been noted as issues along the Trail since the 1940’s (according to minutes from
past Blue Trail Committee meetings). ORVs tend to create deep ruts and gullies in
deeper, moist or wet soils at lower elevations, and to remove or compact shallow, dry
soils at higher elevations. Tracks traversing steep slopes can hasten soil erosion and
alter water drainage patterns along the Trail, and exacerbate damage resulting from
high rainfall events. ORV riders can inadvertently trample rare plants and animals as
well. Noise and air pollution from 2-stroke engines can further disturb both hikers and
resident organisms.
35
Figure 44
. ORV tracks skirt a footbridge,
creating ruts in a streambed at Reservoir Loop.
Normal trail maintenance
activities could exert their own impacts
on vegetation, drainage patterns, and
animal burrows, if not undertaken
carefully to avoid erosion or widening.
Digital elevation models (unpublished
data) indicate that as much as 25% of
the Trail occurs on steep slopes in
excess of 20% grades; such paths
require special attention to placement
and maintenance. However, training
materials and workshops given to Blue
Trail volunteer managers by the
Connecticut Forest and Park
Association stress the importance of
minimizing collateral damage to
adjacent areas while clearing debris,
blazing new trails, and constructing
water bars and steps, with an emphasis
on using hand tools.
Invasive species
Two classes of invasive species
pose significant potential threats to the
integrity of natural communities, the
viability of rare plant and animal
species, and the experience of hikers
along the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail:
invasive insects and invasive plants.
Principal among these agents are the
hemlock woolly adelgid and exotic
shrubs.
The hemlock woolly adelgid
(
Adelges tsugae
), introduced from
Japan in the 1920’s, is now ubiquitous
throughout central Connecticut on
hemlock (
Tsuga canadensis
). Feeding
by these phloem-sucking relatives of
aphids can lead to whole-tree mortality
within 3-10 years of colonization. Sites
of infestation are patchily distributed
along the Trail, but tend to wreak the
most damage in hemlock stands on
drier soils in warmer aspects (trees are
more stressed on droughty soils and the
adelgid benefits from warmer
temperatures; Bonneau et al. 1999,
Orwig et al. 2002). Hemlock infestations
are more frequent and severe in the
southern latitudes of Connecticut, as the
invasion front is still moving northward
(Orwig et al. 2002). The dark shade
under a dense canopy of healthy
hemlock tends to discourage formation
of a dense herbaceous or shrub layer in
the understory. By contrast, defoliation
results in stands of dead and dying
trees, a considerable amount of downed
wood, and canopy openings; soils in
damaged stands are more acidic, lower
in moisture, and higher in coarse woody
debris than soils in undamaged stands
(Kizlinski et al. 2002). Salvage logging
of dying hemlock has been conducted at
some sites near the Trail to reduce fire
hazards and promote safety of forest
36
visitors (e.g., Penwood State Forest,
Cockaponset State Forest); these
harvesting practices create large gaps
that are conducive to regeneration of
fast-growing deciduous trees and
herbaceous plants, particularly black
birch (
Betula lenta
) and hay-scented
fern (
Dennstaedtia punctilobula
)
(Kizlinski et al. 2002). Together, adelgid
infestation and salvage logging can
permanently alter the forest profile and
associated ecosystem dynamics.
Because a large proportion of the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail traverses
ridgetops that are not dominated by
hemlock, most (perhaps 70%) of the
Trail is not directly affected by this
defoliation. However, dying trees are
visible at many viewpoints along the
Trail. It is also important to note that a
host of other invasive insects and
pathogens have killed – or are projected
to kill or weaken – a significant number
of trees of many species: Gypsy moth,
beech bark disease, chestnut blight,
Dutch elm disease, butternut canker,
dogwood anthracnose, sudden oak
death, and Asian longhorn beetle (Orwig
2002).
Figure 45
. Dead hemlocks at Hubbard Park,
Meriden, Connecticut.
Much of the Metacomet-
Mattabesett Trail is relatively free of
invasive plant species, as they have yet
to gain a foothold in intact forest
interiors. The areas where invasive
plants most frequently occur are trail
access points near roads or infested
fields (perhaps 10% of total trail length).
These areas receive the largest number
of human visitors, and have the highest
proportion of “edge” habitats that attract
birds and other animal vectors that
spread invasive plant seeds. High-light
conditions at these habitat edges tend to
favor growth of invasives and other sun-
demanding native species. Areas
where these species appear to
penetrate forest interiors tend to
coincide with previously grazed or
farmed plots or with house foundation
sites (personal observation).
Exceptions to this trend occur at Beseck
Mountain along the Mattabesett Trail,
where invasive shrubs have spread to
the summit. Hikers, bikers, and pets
can potentially transport invasive
propagules all along the Trail.
The most common invasive
species (in terms of ground cover) noted
along the Trail during 2004 and in
previous surveys (Farnsworth 2001)
included the following shrub species:
Japanese barberry (
Berberis thunbergii
),
multiflora rose (
Rosa multiflora
),
honeysuckles (
Lonicera
spp.), glossy
buckthorn (
Frangula alnus
), and winged
euonymous (
Euonymous alatus
), and
autumn olive (
Elaeagnus umbellata
).
Japanese knotweed (
Fallopia japonica
)
is common along well-visited waterways
near the Trail.
37
Figure 46
. Japanese knotweed along stream
shore at Seven Falls.
Figure 47
. Japanese barberry at Ragged
Mountain.
While there is widespread consensus in the scientific and conservation
community that invasive plant species are becoming more prevalent in Connecticut, few
systematic studies to date have characterized the long-term impacts of particular
invasives on rare species or community structure, or have documented the actual
longevity of particular infestations. Thus, while it is obvious that species composition in
certain habitats traversed by the Trail (especially ecological borders between forest and
anthropogenically altered landscapes) will change with the presence of invasives, the
lasting effects of these invasions are not as yet known (Farnsworth, in press). In the
immediate term, these invasives tend to homogenize the landscape, reducing the
diversity of natural community types visible along the Trail. Thorny shrubs can also
pose a hindrance to hiking.
While not considered “invasive” in the strict sense, native white-tailed deer
(
Odocoileus virginianus
) are burgeoning in the state and are changing the face of
Connecticut forests through heavy grazing pressure. Deer often utilize human trails,
and can be seen along the Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail at all times of year. Dense
populations of deer can hamper forest regeneration through overconsumption of tree
seedlings; shift forest understory structure to low-diversity stands of resistant
herbaceous species (such as hay-scented fern,
Dennstaedtia punctilobula
), and reduce
reproduction and growth of rare plant species (McShea et al. 1997).
38
Campsites and fire rings
Despite prohibitions against camping in undesignated sites, areas along the
Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail attract campers and partiers. Unauthorized uses are more
frequent in sectors of the Trail in proximity to densely populated areas (e.g., the cities of
Meriden and Berlin) where visitation pressure is higher. The main problems resulting
from this activity are an increased risk of fire, and pollution from dumping. Fire rings
and small garbage heaps were found at a few sites on Lamentation Mountain in
particular during 2004 reconnaissance. Dumping has local effects that are primarily
aesthetic in nature. However, fires could spread rapidly in the more xeric areas of the
Metacomet summits. Fuel loads are low on rocky balds, but increase markedly at short
distances from the ridgetops. Fires would be difficult to fight in areas of the Trail that
are less accessible to emergency vehicles. During a recent fire on the Mt. Holyoke
Range (along the Metacomet Trail in Massachusetts), detection and control was
hampered for several days due to difficulty of access; eventually, water drops had to be
made from aircraft to contain the fire. There is little conclusive evidence that lightning-
strike fires have been frequent on the Metacomet Range, or that fire is a natural
ecological driver in maintaining the oak-hickory glades or other community types that
predominate on the range (Fitzgerald 2001). Therefore, the impacts of fire on natural
community structure are largely unpredictable without further systematic study. Studies
of post-fire recovery on the Mt. Holyoke Range reveal a shift toward more diverse and
dense herbaceous vegetation (some exotic) in burned zones, along with gradual stump-
sprout regeneration by trees (Hampshire College, unpublished data).
Figure 48
. Fire ring with associated litter at Lamentation Mountain.
Global change
The term “global change” encompasses a range of human-induced alterations of
ecological processes that occur at very large scales; the manifestations of global
change that impinge most directly on the Trail in Connecticut are climatic warming and
nitrogen pollution. Climatic warming — due at least in part to rising levels of
atmospheric greenhouse gases — is demonstrably occurring (IPCC 2001); Connecticut
39
mean annual temperatures have risen 1.4
o
F in summer and 2.4
o
F in winter between
1885 and 1999 (New England Regional Assessment Group [NERAG] 2001; also see
data in “Climate and Air Quality” above). The cascade of impacts of such warming is
highly complex and still difficult to predict. Among the factors that could impact the Trail
and its users are: 1) an increased incidence of Lyme disease; 2) more days that are
classified with unhealthful ozone levels; and 3) more days with extreme heat levels
(NERAG 2001). Some general circulation models predict a higher frequency of extreme
storm events, including ice storms and hurricanes (which would result in significant tree
and Trail damage); however, this prediction is variable among models and is difficult to
refine at a regional level.
Another facet of global change of concern is increased nitrogen pollution. Total
reactive Nitrogen levels in the atmosphere have increased considerably in the Northeast
in the past 50 years, from approximately 30 terragrams/year to 160 terragrams/year
(Hubbard Brook Research Foundation 2003). Nitrogen is released into the atmosphere
and waterways through food production and consumption (fertilizer inputs, fixation by
crops, production by livestock, sewage outputs) and by emissions from motor vehicles
and power plants. Nitrogen emissions contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone
that impacts human health and may reduce primary productivity in Northeastern forests
by an estimated 14% (Hubbard Brook Research Foundation 2003). Reactive Nitrogen
also contributes to acid precipitation, increased nitrate contents of runoff, and
acidification of water bodies. Nitrgoenous pollution of lakes, rivers, and estuaries can
cause algal blooms and fish die-off. Elevated soil Nitrogen has also been implicated in
fostering invasions by certain plant species that are efficient at taking up and using
nutrients for growth (e.g., Bertness et al. 2002). Increased tree mortality, water
pollution, and prevalence of invasive species reduce biodiversity and may significantly
alter ecosystem processes in the forests and wetlands associated with the Trail.
Together, the threats of development, bedrock extraction, improper trail use, and
global change will have to be addressed through a combination of local and national
legislation, public education, and negotiation with private and industrial landowners.
Fortunately, a variety of regional interests, town planning agencies, conservation
organizations, Connecticut Forest and Park Association and others — many with long
standing and broad influence in the state — can work together to devise judicious
strategies for Trail protection.
40
Conclusions
The Metacomet-Mattabesett Trail roams a variety of diverse habitats that are
unique in Connecticut, and in North America. It is a critical corridor of semi-protected
land that many organisms – including humans – find to be essential refuge. National
Scenic Trail designation will help to ensure that these significant hotspots are conserved
and will promote the aesthetic and educational potential of the Trail for its many users.
Figure 49
. View of Merimere Reservoir from South Mountain, Meriden, Connecticut.
41
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