MOUNT TOBY ECOSYSTEM
THE MOUNT TOBY PARTNERSHIP
The Mount Toby Partnership is a broadly based group of representatives of government
agencies, industry, private organizations, and citizens from the surrounding landscape. Any
group can join as long as they are committed to the statement of principles that guides the
assemblage. The agreement itself is a simple document that pledges the member groups work
together for the benefit of the people and resources of the Mount Toby ecosystem. Although it
does not constrain the members or the member organizations to certain decisions and actions
within their organizations, it does commit them to "come to the table, over and over again" as a
way of making the best of every situation. As such, it encourages group solutions, made
voluntarily and consensually, rather than seeking administrative or judicial decisions among
contending parties. The initial charter of the group is for 10 years (2000-2010), but the clear
intent is that this will become a permanent organizing basis for community planning and action.
Guiding Principles
We seek to create a place to live that meets the needs of ourselves and future residents. We
seek to do this in a way that is based on community, civility, common sense, rationality, and
efficiency. We accept that naturally evolving ecosystems (minimally influenced by humans)
were diverse and resilient, and that within the framework of competition, evolutionary pressures,
and changing climates, these ecosystems were sustainable in a broad sense. Moreover, we
acknowledge that many present ecosystems modified by modern industrial civilizations do not
have all these characteristics. Indeed, we note that much past human impact lies outside the
biophysical capability of sustainable ecosystems because human wants have far exceeded needs,
and the result has been a significant deterioration in many ecosystems. Therefore, our primary
goal is to bring the human social and economic needs into closer agreement with the ecological
capabilities to ensure the sustainability of ecological and socioeconomic systems of the Mount
Toby ecosystem. We pledge ourselves to be guided by the following principles:
•
Humans are an integral part of today's ecosystems and depend on natural ecosystems for
survival and welfare; ecosystems must be sustained for the long-term well-being of
humans and other forms of life.
•
In ecosystems, the potential exists for all biotic and abiotic elements to be present with
sufficient redundancy at appropriate spatial and temporal scales across the landscape. In
other words, ecosystems naturally contain redundancies to ensure resiliency following
disturbance and stress.
•
Across adequately large areas, ecosystem processes (such as disturbance, succession,
evolution, natural extinction, recolonization, fluxes of materials, and other stochastic,
deterministic, and chaotic events) that characterize the variability found in natural
ecosystems should be present and functioning.
•
Ecosystems are dynamic entities whose basic patterns and processes were and are shaped
and sustained on the landscape not only by natural successional processes, but also by
natural abiotic disturbances such as fire, drought, and wind. Collectively, these processes
influence the range of natural variability of ecosystem structure, composition, and
function.
•
Human intervention should not impact ecosystem sustainability by destroying or
significantly degrading components that affect ecosystem capabilities. Ecosystem
management is intended to allow normal fluctuations in populations that could have
occurred naturally. It should promote biological diversity and provide for habitat
complexity and functions necessary for diversity to prosper, but it should not be a goal to
maintain all present levels of animal populations or to maximize biodiversity.
•
The cumulative effects of human influences, including the production of commodities
and services, should maintain resilient ecosystems capable of returning to the natural
range of variability if left alone.
•
These principles reflect our underlying assumption that long-term economic and social
well-being depend on a healthy functioning ecological system. Hence, managing for
ecological sustainability has a preeminent role in the guiding philosophy of Mount Toby.
The Governor, through its Executive Office of Environmental Affairs and affiliated resource
management agencies, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife, through its regional director and the Conti
National Fish and Widlife Refuge, have committed their resources to provide the base operations
for the Toby Partnership. The Secretary of Environmental Affairs has assigned a regional
coordinator the primary task of ensuring easy access to all state government agencies and
programs, directly through the governor's office. The state Department of Environmental
Management (DEM) has assigned a planner from its central office part-time to facilitate
activities of the Toby Partnership, and Mass. Division of Fisheries and Wildlife has assigned a
biologist for the next 5 years to help with technical information and activities. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service has assigned a planner from the regional office and a professional resource
manager from the Conti Refuge to assist the Partnership for 5 years. In addition, all other state
and federal resource agencies with responsibilities in the Toby ecosystem have pledged the
support of their staff and physical resources to help along the way.
The state's representatives from the region have taken an intense interest in the Toby
Partnership as a unique approach and a possible model for the entire commonwealth.
Representative Stephen Kulik, who has run on the idea of community-based decisions as best for
the country, has led a legislative effort to authorize $20,000 annually for the work of the
Partnership for 5 years. Moreover, they made the work of the Partnership exempt from the rules
of the Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) and have assigned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service as the lead agency for all federal resource management and environmental
responsibilities in the ecosystem. Planning staff in the Franklin Regional Planning Commission
office have agreed to work with the Partnership to develop a comprehensive plan. In addition,
the towns of Sunderland and Leverett have added the Partnership to the entities asked to review
subdivision, rezoning, and development applications.
All signatories to the agreement are automatically members of the Mount Toby Partnership,
which entitles them to send a representative to all meetings as "speaking members". They are
also voting members, if the need arises to hold formal votes. The work of the Partnership is
carried out by the Community Circle, a set of 10-15 representatives of member organizations
who are endorsed by a majority of the signatories to the agreement. The Community Circle does
the hard work of the Partnership - organizing, overseeing, making decisions, seeking funds, and
generally ensuring that the principles of the agreement are maintained and enhanced.
The Toby Community Circle
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Sunderland Selectboard representative
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Leverett Selectboard representative
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Montague Selecboard representative
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Department of Environmental Management regional planner
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Division of Fisheries and Wildlife professional biologist
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University of Massachusetts, Department of Natural Resources Conservation
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The Nature Conservancy - Connecticut River Valley Office
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The Kestrel Trust
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The Valley Land Fund
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Cowls Lumber Company
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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Conti Fish and Wildlife Refuge
•
The Mount Toby Association
THE MOUNT TOBY ECOSYSTEM
The Mt. Toby project area encompasses 3,837 ha on the edge of the Connecticut River valley
in Franklin County, Massachusetts in the west-central part of the state (approximately 42.49N
latitude, 72.54W longitude), approximately 100 km west of Boston, 48 km north of Springfield
and 10 km north of Amherst. The project area includes parts of three towns: Sunderland,
Leverett, and Montague, although most of the area lies in Sunderland. The project area is
centered around Mt. Toby, a prominent 386 m peak, and includes the seven major
sub-watersheds that drain it. Mt. Toby is unique because it is the largest tract of primary forest
land (i.e., land never plowed or pastured; always forested) in north-central Massachusetts (and
perhaps all of east and central Massachusetts). The project area is bordered on the west by the
Connecticut River, on the north and east by the Cranberry Brook and Long Plain Brook
sub-watershed divides, respectively, and on the south by Route 116 and Bull Hill Road. Several
major thoroughfares bisect the project area, including Route 47, which parallels the Connecticut
River, and Route 63, which runs approximately north-south and separates Sunderland from
Leverett. Two major divided highways, Interstate 91 and Route 2, located within a few miles of
the project area make the area easily accessible to a large number of people.
The physical environment of the project area is quite diverse, ranging from low-lying (30 m
asl) floodplains with deep, rich, alluvial soils along the Connecticut River, to level glacial
outwash plains containing deep sand and gravel deposits, to steep slopes and deeply incised
drainages underlain by glacial tills on a resistant sandstone known as Mt. Toby conglomerate.
The diverse terrain supports a wide range of natural communities, including rock cliffs and
outcrops, transitional northern hardwood-hemlock forest, oak-dominated forest, shrub swamps,
emergent marshes, wooded swamps, and vernal pools. The Massachusetts Natural Heritage and
Endangered Species Program has designated several sites within the project area as priority sites
because they represent rare or exemplary natural communities or because they support
state-listed threatened or endangered species. The climate is characterized as temperate with an
average annual precipitation of 112 cm and an average minimum temperature of –50 C in
January and maximum of 220 C in July.
The project area contains a complex mixture of public and privately owned lands used for a
variety of purposes. The University of Massachusetts owns the largest single parcel comprising
roughly 8% of the project area. The Department of Environmental Management owns several
parcels, and together with the University of Massachusetts property, these state-owned lands
comprise the core of the project area. Municipalities, through local conservation commissions,
own scattered parcels. Several parcels are owned by various land trusts (e.g., Trustees of
Reservations) and nongovernmental conservation organizations (e.g., The Nature Conservancy).
Cowl's Lumber Company owns and manages a number of parcels in the project area. Overall,
however, the vast majority of the area is owned by private individuals. Given the diversity of
ownerships, it is not surprising that the project area contains a diversity of land uses. Forests
cover almost 80% of the area and are used for a wide variety of functions, including timber
production, wildlife habitat, recreation. Agricultural uses (cropland, pasture, and nurserys),
located mainly on the Connecticut River floodplain, comprise an additional 8%. Sand and gravel
deposits associated with the glacial outwash plains on the east side of Mt. Toby support a vital
mining industry. The Warner Brothers Company operates a large mine just south of the project
area; two small mines operate in the northern portion of the project area. High-density residential
and commercial uses are relatively restricted, collectively comprising <5%, and are concentrated
in the downtown area of Sunderland. Low-density rural residential development is widely
dispersed around the periphery of Mt. Toby.
The History of Mount Toby
In order to fully understand the current ecosystem, it is necessary to understand the processes
that shaped its development. Specifically, the current ecosystem structure and function is a direct
result of past processes operating over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. These
processes continue to shape the current ecosystem. In order to sustain desirable ecosystem
structures and functions, it is necessary to understand how these structures and functions were
created and maintained under "natural" conditions. In this section, we describe the geological,
paleo-ecological and post-European settlement land use history of the project area. We provide a
broad overview of the processes and events occurring throughout the region, focusing on Mt.
Toby when possible.
Geological history
The geologic history of Mt. Toby and its surroundings is directly linked to a dynamic process
that began more than 500 million years ago. Over the course of time, the land was folded,
eroded, lifted, eroded again, and then glaciated up to twenty times. The resulting landscape, in
what is now the Connecticut River valley, includes the Pelham Dome, the Holyoke Range,
Mount Sugarloaf, and Mt. Toby among other major landforms.
Beginning 400 million years ago (Devonian Period), the bedrock crust of the current
Connecticut River valley went through a process of massive compression and uplift as the
African continental plate collided with the North American plate creating the supercontinent
Pangea. The bedrock folded and pushed upward, creating high mountains. This mountain
building episode was followed by an extended period of erosion during the late Paleozoic and
early Triassic Periods, ultimately leveling the mountains all the way down to a plain.
Beginning about 200 million years ago (Triassic Period), Pangea began to break apart into
Laurasia (North American and Eurasia) to the north and Gondwana (Africa, South America,
Antarctica, Australia, and India) to the south. As Pangea broke apart, the North American
continent was put under enormous strain and many down-faulted valleys were created as a result.
Locally, the Eastern Border Fault, which runs through the Mt. Toby project area, was created as
a result of this process. Over the next 85 million years, earthquakes increased the elevational
offset along the fault line; the eastern hills were raised as the valley floor was lowered. The
estimated maximum vertical offsets range from as much as 35,000 ft in Connecticut to
approximately 15,000 in Massachusetts.
As the eastern highlands rose, they were quickly eroded away by west and southwest flowing
rivers which deposited deep layers of alluvium on the valley floor. These sediments accumulated
to depths of up to 6,000 ft. Today, these erosional remnants form much of the sedimentary rock
found in the valley and represent the parent material for the Mt. Toby conglomerate bedrock.
This conglomerate material survived millions of years of erosion due to the presence of the
mineral Albite, which acted to bind the minerals together into a strong, erosion resistant,
sedimentary rock. Today, the eastern border fault provides an interesting tale of this history
because it separates the older metamorphic rocks of the eastern highlands from the much
younger sedimentary rocks of the Connecticut River valley. Volcanism was also active in the
valley during this period. Most of the volcanic flows came from faults in the bedrock (fissure
flows), which allowed magma to seep to the surface slowly. These lava flows continued
sporadically for 25 million years. Concurrent and subsequent erosion of the eastern highlands
filled in the valley and buried the volcanic deposits. Some of these fissure flows are still evident
in the valley (e.g., Holyoke Range); they are up to 400 ft thick and tilted due to the active fault
movements of the valley.
Roughly 135 million years ago, the valley faulting ended as Pangea completed its breakup,
thus ending the tensional stresses that created the fault in the first place. Ultimately, the rift zone
along the Eastern Border Fault was aborted, leaving the Connecticut River valley attached to
North America. During the Cretaceous Period (144-65 millions ago), the valley was completely
filled in by erosion of the eastern highlands. The landscape at this time was mostly worn flat by
erosion and deposition processes, creating what is called a peneplain. The most resistant rocks
survived this erosional period and form modern-day "monadnocks" (e.g., Mount Monadnock)
and some of the higher mountains in the region (e.g., Green Mountains and White Mountains).
Most of the modern-day landforms were shaped during the Cenozoic Era. At this beginning
of this period, slow meandering streams made there way across the gentle incline of the valley
floor However, late in this era (10 million years ago) there was a major uplifting of the valley
(several thousand feet in the project area). This uplifting increased the erosive power of the
streams. Ultimately, the Deerfield, Westfield, and Farmington Rivers united (via headward
cutting of feeder streams) into what is now know as the Connecticut River. As the larger
Connecticut River and its tributaries cut its way down the valley, softer materials were easily
eroded, leaving behind the more resistant rocks such as the volcanic basalts and the more
resistant sedimentary materials such as the Mt. Toby conglomerate.
Glaciation.--The modern-day landforms were affected by multiple glaciations that occurred
during the last 2.5 million years. The most recent of the many glacial advances during the period
was the Wisconsin Ice Sheet, which covered New England with a two-mile thick sheet of ice
during its peak. As this glacier advanced, it deposited thick glacial till over most of the
landscape. Indeed, most of Mt. Toby is covered by this till. As the glacier retreated from its
southern most extent 18,000 years ago, it deposited its terminal load of rock and sediment,
forming a terminal moraine and creating what is now Long Island, Cape Cod and the islands. At
that time, Long Island Sound was Glacial Lake Connecticut.
Approximately 13,700 years ago, as the glacier continued to retreat, a glacial ice lobe formed
a dam out of bouldery till along the glacial outwash plain in Rocky Hill, Connecticut. This dam
created glacial Lake Hitchcock, a temporary lake that eventually stretched for some 200 miles
north to modern-day St. Johnsbury, Vermont. In the early stages of formation, Lake Hitchcock
was still connected to Lake Middletown via the Middletown spillway and water levels were
continually changing at this time. When the water level declined, the two lakes were separated
and the New Britain Spillway was formed, connecting Glacial Lake Hitchcock to Glacial Lake
Connecticut. Lake Hitchcock continued to drain here, eroding the dam of glacial till until the
moraine dam solidified, becoming "incised in bedrock." This stabilized the water level in the
lake for 2,000-3,000 years. In Greenfield, MA, north of the Mt. Toby project area, the water
level was measured at approximately 300 feet above the current sea level.
As the glacier continued its retreat, glacial streams deposited sand and gravel outwash in
alluvial fans. In addition, streams entering Lake Hitchcock formed deltas, and these deposits
have supported a vital sand and gravel mining industry within the project area for the past 200
years. Fine-grain deposits were laid down on the bottom of Lake Hitchcock. Specifically, layers
of coarse sand and silt, alternating with layers of very fine clay particles (also known as varves),
represented yearly, seasonal deposition of material into the lake from the many rivers and
streams that flowed into the lake. Coarse material was deposited during warmer months when the
lake was relatively free from ice and the winds kept the water in motion. When the lake froze in
the winter, the finer clay particles settled out. A scientist by the name of Earnst Antev,
researched sediment varves all over New England and has estimated Lake Hitchcock to be
around 4,100 years old. There is much controversy over this date. According to radiocarbon
dating done by Richard Little, the lake was formed in 13,700 B.P. and began to drain as early as
12,900 B.P.
While researching Glacial Lake Hitchcock, Tammy Marie Rittenour discovered a variance in
the thickness of varve layers that had a patterned occurrence. It is currently believed that these
thicker layers have to do with El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), cyclical climate events,
which brought more rain to the area, and thus more sediment. It was formerly believed that
ENSO events were exclusively warm weather events, their discovery in the geologic record of
this lake is very significant to the study of this cyclical global disturbance, and its role in the
global climate of today.
It is believed that the lake water was too cold to have supported much life, and the varve
sediments reveal that little organic matter was present. When the lake drained, the climate is
believed to have been cold and windy. With little to no vegetation on the barren lake floor,
wind-blown sediment and sand formed active dunes, which can still be seen in the landscape
today at the southern edge of the project area in the form of vegetated mounds on the floor of the
relatively flat valley.
The interface of the topset beds and the forset beds at the glacial river delta sites reveal the
lakes prehistoric water levels. When sites revealing these topset and forset beds were compared,
they showed a slight incline to the north indicating that the basin had been tilted. It is believed
that this is due to isostatic rebound, an uplifting of the crust once the incredible weight of the ice
sheet no longer rested on the land. Geologists date this rebound event as happening 2,000 years
after the retreat of the glacier, which is a relatively lengthy delay in isostatic uplift that is unique
to this area. This is believed to have been the event that finally drained Glacial Lake Hitchcock.
Approximately 12,000 ago, the dam at Rocky Hill was eroded as the lake began to drain. As
isostatic uplift increased, a current began to develop within the mass of water due to the tilt of
the basin. As the water level continued to lower, it eventually reached a depth where most of the
southern lake floor was exposed. A number of small short-lived basins remained in the northern,
deeper portions of the lake basin in Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire. The
proto-Connecticut River, connected these lakes, eventually causing them to drain. As the river
eroded into the lake bottom, it formed a gentle gradient to its base level in the ocean. Therefore,
the river became perched on bedrock and till nick points which were resistant to erosion. These
resistant features prevented further deepening of the river channel and influenced terrace
formation. As additional isostatic uplift occurred, the river cut further through these resistant
features, abandoning the current flood plain and incising further into the floor of Lake
Hitchcock.
Currently, the Mt. Toby landscape reflects the complex geologic and glacial history of the
area. The dominant landforms are a direct result of the geological processes that created the
underlying bedrock, but they have been substantially modified and shaped by the actions of
repeated glaciation. Many of the visible surficial geological features are a direct result of the last
glaciation. For example, large blocks of stranded ice from the last glaciation formed depressions
in the landscape known as "kettle holes." Many of these depressions subsequently filled with
water to form lakes and ponds. Cranberry Pond in the project area is a good example of a kettle
hole pond. In addition, the soils of the project area directly reflect the glacial processes that
deposited them. Together, these landforms and abiotic features create the template upon which
all plant and animal communities have developed.
Post-glacial paleo-ecological history
Vegetation Patterns.--Following the retreat of the Wisconsin glacier, the project area was a
tundra landscape, similar to modern-day arctic regions with herbaceous and low shrub/tree
vegetation. As the climate progressively warmed from 10,000 to 5,000 B.P., forest vegetation
gradually replaced tundra. Tree species migrated north from refuge areas not under the
Laurentide ice sheet. Boreal trees species, such as spruce and larch, were the first to expand
northward (approximately 12,000 B.P.), followed by red and jack pine and balsam fir (11-12,000
B.P.), hemlock and white pine (11-10,000 B.P.), and eventually characteristic northern hardwood
species such as birch, beech, and sugar maple (9-10,000 B.P.).
Our current understanding of vegetation change during the period between deglaciation and
European settlement is based largely on analysis of lake sediments which contain fossil pollen,
spores, and charcoal. The lake sediments are collected using a corer, which gathers several
meters of material for analysis. The collected material is then transferred to a laboratory and
measured. Loss on ignition testing is conducted by burning the sediments for one hour at 5500
C. The organic matter in the sediments will burn completely to carbon dioxide leaving only
mineral soil (sand, silt, clay). The percentage loss of organic matter gives an indication of past
changes in productivity and possible forest type. Sediments are also examined using a
stereoscope and image analysis software to detect evidence of charcoal. The macroscopic
charcoal is used for reconstructing past fire dynamics. Fires surrounding the lake would cause
ash to settle in the bottom of the lake and cluster in the sediment. The macroscopic charcoal
provides a historic reference of fire disturbance severity and frequency.
Analysis of the fossil pollen provides a useful means of reconstructing the historic vegetation
composition. Fossil pollen accumulates on lake bottoms by the same varve-forming processes
described earlier for lake-bottom sediments, and is flawlessly preserved due to strong resistance
to decay (particularly in anaerobic conditions). The pollen is extracted from the sediment
through a multi-step process and examined under a microscope for pollen type. Fortunately, each
tree genus has a very characteristic pollen shape and size. Identified samples provide a
chronological examination of the relative forest type and vegetation dynamics.
Native American Influences.–Although Native American migration patterns remain in
dispute, scholars today generally divide the span from 12,500 B.P. to the Gregorian calendar
year 1600 into four periods: the Paleo-Indian Period (12,500 to 8000 B.P.), the Archaic Period
(8000 to 3000 B.P.), the Woodland Period (3000 to 1000 B.P.) and the Late Woodland (1000
B.P. to 400 B.P). According to the theory of migration across the Bering Strait, the Paleo-Indians
followed their prey (primarily the mammoth, bison and elk) in nomadic movements across and
down the North American continent. As the animal supply decreased (presumably from overkill
and environmental pressures) and were pushed southward by glacier activity, small bands of
hunters were forced to the east and south. This migration was an extremely slow process
involving many small and tribally varied groups of people. Archaeological sites in southwest
Pennsylvania and on Long Island suggest the presence of humans in these two areas as far back
as 16,000 years; a site in Goshen, New York has evidence of human activity as early as 15,000
years ago. These data suggest that humans migrated across the Bering Strait more than 40,000
years ago, although there is scientific debate on these dates.
The most recent glacial advance down the northeastern part of what is now the United States
was the Laurentide Ice Sheet (or Wisconsin), ranging as far south as the Ohio River and as far
east as Long Island. The coastal New England area was almost completely covered with ice, up
to 2500 feet thick and as far north as Hartford, Connecticut. The climate south of the glacier was
cool and moist. Land was green and well watered, and as the ice sheet drove southward,
animals, especially large mammals, were driven before it. Mammalian species included the
woolly mammoth, the mastodon, the giant beaver, native horses, wolves, bear, deer, antelope and
rabbit. An absence of edible plants makes it likely that Paleo-Indians were big-game hunters,
wanderers with an extremely low population density. At the close of the Pleistocene Age, many
mammalian species became extinct. By approximately 10,000 B.P., these species no longer
existed. There is speculation that the advancing ice sheet destroyed the plants on which these
great beasts fed.
A change in the land use occurred, ushering in the Archaic Period. By 9500 B.P. the ice sheet
had melted along what is now coastal New England. The cold tundra environment gave way to a
relatively warmer and more humid climate, giving rise to conifers such as spruce, pine, and
birch. At this time, evidence of big-game hunting vanishes. The Archaic Period reflects
numerous different patterns of migration and settlement. The hunter-wanderer society gave way
to a semi-nomadic people engaged in an exploratory movement for sites offering seasonal food
resources. Patterns of migration along the Appalachian Ridge are found in both directions, north
and south. Shared technology and a crude form of trade seems to have evolved.
During the Early Archaic Period (9500 to 7000 B.P.), the forest environment likely provided
enough flora and fauna resources for very small groups of humans (perhaps no more than
seventy at one time) to gather in the warmer weather for communal food-procuring activities
(such as fishing and vegetal gathering). Food storage techniques were probably undeveloped; in
the cold months when resources were scarce, the humans divided into even smaller groups,
perhaps no larger than the nuclear family. The Middle Archaic Period (7000 to 5500 B.P.)
denotes the replacement of coniferous forest with a mixed deciduous forest. Edible nuts, berries,
tubers and roots probably became available, as well as small game and fowl. By the Late Archaic
Period (5500 to 3000 B.P.), substantial population increases are noted in coastal areas and inland
as far north as the Berkshire region of western Massachusetts. Occupation sites and distinct
cultural groups increase in number, and a marked push toward settlement occurs. Almost nothing
is known of the settlement patterns and domestic structures over the entire Archaic Period.
The Woodland settlement system (3000 to 1000 B.P.) is characterized by the increasing
significance of small, seasonally occupied and specialized village sites. Early in the period, food
procurement was likely reliant upon the hunting and gathering of wild foods with some
gardening. However, in the Late Woodland Period (1000 B.P. to 400 B.P), agriculture was a
vital part of the woodland people's culture, as evidenced by corn planting.
Northern New England Native Americans had a principally hunter/gatherer subsistence;
consequently population densities were relatively low and the impact on their environment was
kept to a minimum. In addition to hunting and gathering, Native Americans of southern New
England practiced gardening. Grain comprised fifty to sixty-seven percent of their diet. Kidney
beans, squash, pumpkin and tobacco were also sown. By Autumn the corn was harvested;
chestnuts, groundnuts, and wild plants were gathered. By October and well into December, bear
and deer were hunted, supplying seventy-five percent of the winter meat.
Despite the increasing dependence on farming, eastern Native Americans tilled less than one
percent of the available land; their agricultural techniques served to minimize weed invasion,
pest insects, and soil erosion. This coupled with shifts between modes of subsistence further
reduced impact upon inhabited ecosystems. However, their presence and habits did influence the
character of their landscape.
The more dramatic effects on the land were driven by the burning of extensive forest sections
one or two times each year. Southern New England Native Americans would set fire to piles of
wood around the bases of trees in a field; felled trees were then burned. Cleared fields were often
returned to for eight to ten seasons. This continual burning created an area of large, widely
spaced trees; chestnuts, oaks, and hickories thrived because of their ability to sprout from the
roots. Trees that did not sprout were at a disadvantage in these fields (e.g. hemlock, beech,
juniper, white pine). Furthermore, forest nutrients were recycled into the soil at a faster rate,
consequently grasses, shrubs, and non-woody plants flourished after a fire. Populations of elk,
deer, beaver, hare, porcupine, turkey, quail, and ruffed grouse (important animal species for the
Native Americans) increased in this landscape. Native American burning created forests in many
stages of succession, a character of New England ecosystems which persisted throughout the
Woodland Period and into the present.
Post-European settlement history
The Mt. Toby landscape has changed several times since the first European settlers arrived in
the late 17th Century. While there are no studies that specifically examine the project area, if
done judiciously, we can extrapolate the basic changes in land use in the project area from
studies of nearby Massachusetts regions. Researchers at the Harvard Forest in Petersham have
collected extensive data on land use history changes in Massachusetts and written many papers
on the subject (Foster 1992, Foster et al. 1992, Foster 1993, Foster et al. 1998). The well-known
Harvard Forest dioramas describe seven periods of different land use in Massachusetts: 1)
pre-settlement, 2) early agriculture, 3) height of agriculture, 4) farm abandonment, 5) old-field
white pine succession, 6) white pine harvest and hardwood succession, and 7)growth of
hardwood forest. Because the dioramas were completed in the 1930's, they do not include an
important disturbance event in west/central Massachusetts, the 1938 hurricane. Since the
hurricane, there have been new land use changes which lead up to the present. This section
describes, chronologically, the land use changes in the Mt. Toby project area following the
Harvard Forest dioramas and other pertinent sources. Much of the information reported herein
has been taken from Foster and O'Keefe (2000), it has only been formally cited for quotations.
Information from other sources has been cited conventionally.
Pre-European Settlement.--When the first European settlers arrived in the late 17th Century,
a mixed forest of pine, sugar maple, oak, and beech greeted them. Plant associations were
obviously dictated by climate and soil factors; maples, birch, and beech on cooler, more moist
north and east facing slopes; oaks on the drier and warmer south and west facing slopes. The
forests were mostly old growth, although Native Americans had been clearing land for crops and
deer habitat. Loamy soils, large snags, and coarse woody debris were typical of the old-growth
forests.
Most of Mt. Toby proper was forested with eastern hemlock, eastern white pine, sugar
maple, American beech, red oak, white ash, and yellow birch, typical of a mixed intermediate or
transition forest. In areas where Native Americans had burned and cleared for crops and hunting
areas (to attract white-tailed deer which prefer edge habitat), white pine usually succeeded after
the Native Americans moved on. Native Americans did have an influence on the landscape, as
their management practices created patches of different seral stages in the landscape (DeGraaf
and Miller 1996). White pine also invaded abandoned Native American villages, dried up beaver
ponds, and the sandy soils typically found around ponds and lakes. Windthrow was the most
common disturbance, but snow and ice loading, pest outbreaks, and fire also contributed to
opening various-sized gaps in the forest. Such gaps allowed less shade tolerant species like paper
birch and white pine to get established in the forest.
Given a climate suited for many deciduous and coniferous trees, a variety of soils, and
regular disturbance through windthrow and fire, one would expect, "…considerable temporal
and spatial variation in the mixture and distribution of species and the pattern of vegetation."
(Foster and O'Keefe 2000, p. 4). Elsewhere in the project area, the main influence on species
composition was the Connecticut River, which has floodplains on the western border of the
project area. American elm and sycamore would have been the dominant tree species in the
floodplain, accompanied by native willows and poplars (the latter two more common closer to
the river itself).
Early Subsistence Farming.--When they arrived, early settlers began clearing forest for their
homes and small scale agriculture fields. Plots for homes were carefully chosen to maximize
solar heating to warm the house in winter and sunlight for crops in the summer. The forest was
beginning to be cleared by settlers for farms, and individual farmers cleared one to three acres
annually through cutting, girdling, and burning of trees. Wood had little value other than for fuel
and local construction (Foster 1993). Settlers found the local land rocky, and clearing for
agriculture was tedious. Because of scant trade, most settlers produced goods only for their
families. Of the cleared land, much was left as pasture (approximately two-thirds), and the rest
was used for crops. Rocks excavated during tillage operations were used to build stone walls
delineating fields and property borders. Logs from felled trees were also used to make fences. As
trees were felled, the stumps were left intact, allowing hardwoods, notably American chestnut, to
resprout. The upland forest consisted of mixed hardwoods with occasional white pines and
hemlocks. The majority of the hardwoods were oaks and chestnut. Roads were scarce and in
poor condition; area residents, however, did engage in trade of labor, services, and goods
(Garrison 1987)
Height of Agricultural Development.--The first third of the 19th Century represented the
height of agriculture in New England, when 60-90% of the land had been cleared. It is important
to remember, however, that this was not the case with much of the Mt. Toby project area
landscape. While agriculture was prevalent in the lower elevation areas, along the northern edge
of Mt. Toby, and in the floodplain of the Connecticut River, the higher elevation areas with
rocky outcroppings and steep slopes were not converted to fields or pasture. Around 1830,
Massachusetts was almost completely cleared for agriculture. The Massachusetts landscape has
not experienced the same extent of land cleared for farming since this time. Larger farms and an
intricate system of connecting and feeder roads replaced the preceding agricultural landscape of
small farms and few roads (Raup, 1966). As a result of the improved transportation network,
trade flourished whereas previously it had been minimal. Instead of subsistence farming, farmers
narrowed their focus to a few select cash crops (tobacco, for example) and sold the crops for a
profit. The specialization in perishable goods (beef, cheese, and butter) as well as bulky items
such as hay, firewood and potash involved the increasing use of market persons and drovers and
fostering development of a cash economy (Pabts 1941, Baker and Patterson 1986, Foster 1993).
The Georgian architecture indicative of the time highlighted a growing affluence among farmers
and reflected their intention to stay on the land well into the future. However, prosperity
eventually waned, the upshot of several events.
Farm Abandonment Mid-19th Century.--Several important factors led to farm abandonment
by many New England farmers. In 1820, the Erie Canal opened, facilitating travel to the Ohio
River Valley. In the 1840's the country's railroad network vastly expanded, opening up areas
previously accessed only with difficulty. These major transportation boons, coupled with the
federal government's encouragement of westward expansion through land grants (e.g.,
Homestead Act of 1862), succeeded in luring farming away from New England. The rich
mollisols of the Ohio River Valley and further west were more conducive to agriculture because
of their less acidic and less rocky nature (compared to New England's soils) (Brady 1990).
Furthermore, the Civil War compelled young New England men to leave and fight for the Union,
reducing the number of farmers in the region. As a result of these factors, much of the farmland
across New England gradually returned to forest.
With easily dispersed seeds, white pine quickly reclaimed abandoned farm fields in
Massachusetts. Previously tilled soil and abundant sunlight allowed the white pines to grow
quickly in the abandoned fields, creating dense, even-aged stands. Further influencing white
pine's dominance in old agricultural fields was preferential mammalian herbivory of hardwoods
like maple, oak, birch, and chestnut. The diversity of habitat encouraged a commensurate
diversity of fauna previously not common in the area. Apple orchards, herbs, shrubs, and
seedlings left over from settlement provided forage for cottontail rabbits; bobolinks and
meadowlarks ate seeds and insects associated with the old fields. Rodents like white-footed
mouse and chipmunk found stone walls that had delineated fields and property borders useful
foraging and nesting sites. Otters, muskrats, ducks, and wading birds utilized ponds formed when
settlers had dammed streams for power. The increase in wildlife diversity would be apparent in
appropriate locations within the project area, but it is important to recall that Mt. Toby is the
largest tract of primary forest in Central Massachusetts. This means that much of the project area
was never used for agriculture and its wildlife communities would therefore not have changed in
as great a degree as areas that were intensively farmed and then abandoned.
In the Mt. Toby project area, however, current (1997) land use data show that agriculture is
still prominent in the Connecticut River Valley. This occurs because long-term floods and glacial
activity have deposited rich alluvial soils along the river. The western fringe of the project area
contains such soils, and remained under plow after farm abandonment.
Expediting the push westward for farming, the Industrial Revolution of the late 1800's began
concentrating populations in the Northeast into urban areas to work in factories and mills. Cities
like Springfield and Turner's Falls attracted former farmers who did not move west, but could no
longer compete with farmers in the Midwest. During this time, hardwoods were still being
harvested for timber and fuel. Although abundant, white pine was not harvested for fuel because
of its high resin content, which could cause chimney fires.
Old-field White Pine Harvest.--When the harvest of white pine began in the late 19th
Century, saw mills found use for middle aged trees, where prior logging had been mostly of
old-growth trees. Middle-aged trees contained more knots than old-growth trees, making them
less useful for structural timber. A changing nation, however, found use for the otherwise less
valuable middle-aged trees. As noted earlier, the burgeoning national transportation network
expedited national commerce. Transportation of material required containers, and knotty white
pine was the answer. The primary use for white pine became boxes, to ship goods and produce.
Middle-aged white pine was light, cheap, and readily available, ideal for boxes.
Portable saw mills sprouted up throughout Central New England as white pines were
harvested, loaded on sleds, and pulled to the mills with horses. Large clearcuts supported an
average annual yield of between 25,000 and 50,000 board feet (BF) per acre. This brought about
$10 per thousand BF. Once an area was clearcut, the saw mill was moved to a new location,
where the operation started anew. Between 1890 and 1920, about 15 million BF of
second-growth white pine was harvested, accruing $400 million in Central New England (Foster
and O'Keefe 2000). During this time of intense harvest, little thought was given to the future
production potential of white pine in particular, or the forest in general (Raup 1966).
Hardwood Succession and Growth of Hardwood Forests.--In the second decade of the 20th
Century, the supply of white pine started to dwindle. As a result of the intense white pine harvest
of the previous three decades, the hardwood understory that had been growing in the shade of the
white pines began to replace the less shade tolerant pines. Primary species were red oak,
American chestnut, black birch, and red maple. Shade intolerant hardwoods like gray and paper
birch, pin cherry, and poplars were present in more open locations, but once the canopy closed,
these trees died off. In the white pine clearcuts, where the hardwood understory had not arisen or
had been damaged during harvesting, the pioneer species noted above were very common. Forest
diversity was high during this period as shade tolerant hardwoods grew, pioneer hardwoods
replaced white pine fields, and the last remaining white pine fields remained. The diversity of
forest types created a more natural appearance in the landscape (as opposed to the plantation-like
appearance of old-field white pine stands) (Raup 1966).
Most of the hardwoods regenerated from stump sprouts; red oak and American chestnut
became dominant in the overstory. However, chestnut blight eradicated chestnut from the
landscape in the first half of the 20th Century. Beech bark disease also significantly reduced
American beech stands, leaving red oak as the dominant hardwood. The variety of species, age
classes, and sizes created a structurally diverse landscape and attracted pre-settlement forest
wildlife, like bobcats, bears, and fishers.
The 1938 Hurricane.--In the Northeast, hurricanes serve as a major natural disturbance
factor. Depending on their force, they can cause a range of damage from blowdown of
individual trees to massive blowdowns of broad forest areas. In so doing, they create forest gaps
of varying sizes. Interestingly, the amount of hurricane damage is highly sensitive to historical
changes in vegetation across the landscape. This results because the spatial patterns of wind
damage from hurricanes is controlled by vegetation height, as well as forest stand composition.
Certain tree species are more susceptible to damage, as are certain height classes (Foster and
Boose 1992).
The Mt. Toby project area has been impacted by four recorded hurricanes that produced
significant damage. Heavy blowdown occurred immediately to the east of the Mt. Toby project
area during a hurricane in 1815. On September 2, 1938, a category 5 hurricane devastated the
area. As a result of the storm, 7 million cubic meters of New England trees were blown down.
The amount of timber blown down during the storm was considerably more than blown down
from previous storms of similar magnitude. The primary reason for this phenomenon was the
prominence of white pine (which still existed in plantation form on abandoned farm fields) on
the landscape. Since hardwoods were still mostly pole-sized, they were less likely to sustain
damage. White pines, of medium size and in isolated stands, were considerably more susceptible
to windthrow since there was a greater perimeter exposed to the wind. White pine tends to be
shallow-rooted, and in the fields, it grew tall, making it mechanically less stable (Foster and
O'Keefe 2000). Data show that white pine was almost completely removed from the west/central
Massachusetts landscape, hemlock was significantly reduced, but hardwood species were not as
affected (Foster and Boose 1995). On the Mt. Toby landscape, white pine suffered similar
damage, while only about one-half the hemlock was blown down. Much of the white pine in the
project area occurred on the northern slope, where glacial outwash had made agriculture
possible. When the fields were abandoned, white pine invaded, and was subsequently blown
down during the hurricane (M. Kelty, pers. comm.). Most of the damage occurred on the eastern
side of the mountain because the storm tracked just west of the mountain proper, sparing the
west slope.
Mount Toby Landscape post-1938 Hurricane.--Since the devastating hurricane of 1938, the
New England landscape, including the Mt. Toby project area, has recovered to its present
condition. Across New England, forests have outgrown losses from cutting and natural
disturbance. As a result, the present forest is maturing, and consists of two dominant age classes:
(1) 140-160 year old trees regenerated after farm abandonment, and (2) 60 year old trees
regenerated after the 1938 hurricane. Several other modern phenomena have affected the Mt.
Toby landscape since the 1938 hurricane, including a variety of natural and anthropogenic
disturbances. These disturbance processes shape the current and future landscape, but operate on
a landscape that has been heavily impacted by past natural and anthropogenic activities.
Ultimately, the structure, composition, and function of the future Mt. Toby landscape is
intimately tied to the legacy of the past events.
The Ecological Environment
Disturbance and Succession Processes
The Mt. Toby landscape has undergone dramatic changes since the retreat of the last
glaciation due to a variety of natural and anthropogenic agents. Indeed, both natural and
anthropogenic disturbances have played a major role in shaping the current landscape, and they
continue to operate to affect landscape change. In this section, we review the major disturbances
that affect the ecological (and socio-economic) capabilities of the landscape. Some of these are
natural disturbances that influence the range of natural variability in ecosystem structure,
composition, and function. These must be understood if the ecological capabilities of the system
are to be sustained. Other disturbances are either anthropogenic in origin, or an indirect
consequence of anthropogenic activities, and may represent threats to the ecological
sustainability of the landscape.
Wind.–Perhaps the most ubiquitous and influential natural disturbance affecting the Mt.
Toby landscape is windstorms. Several recorded major hurricanes and windstorms have occurred
in the region over the past 400 years. The most recent and well-documented was the hurricane of
1938. This storm brought 15–35 cm of rain and had winds over 200km/hr. More than 60 trillion
board feet of timber were destroyed from New Hampshire to Rhode Island. At the Harvard
Forest, more than 70% of the standing volume of timber was blown down (Foster 1988). As
noted previously, the current forest landscape bears strong evidence of the 1938 storm, as it
drastically changed the forest composition and structure. Storms of similar magnitude were
recorded in 1635 and 1815 and are estimated to occur every 150 years.
Wind has a dramatic impact on successional species composition, since it promotes growth
of a shade tolerant understory. Studies conducted by Harvard Forest at the species, stand, and
landscape levels, have suggested that susceptibility to windthrow is largely determined by
canopy position. Fast-growing, dominant species like Pinus strobus and Betula papyrifera in the
overstory are far more likely to be affected by wind than lower canopy layers consisting of
slower-growing, tolerant species like Acer rubrum, Quercus alba, Carya spp., and Tsuga
canadensis. In catastrophic windthrow events, such as the hurricane of 1938, uprooting appears
to be the predominant form of damage. This is most likely due to the heavy precipitation that
typically accompanies the storm, which in turn saturates the soil and decreases root stability.
Damage to forest stands appears to increase with stand age and height, and decrease with stem
density.
Fire.–Fire is a natural disturbance process in virtually all ecosystems, and it can play a
crucial role in the health of certain fire-dependent ecosystems. In New England, natural fires are
relatively uncommon, and they do not appear to have played a vital role in the development of
present-day forests in the Mt. Toby landscape. Human-caused fires, in contrast, have had a much
larger influence on the development of present-day forests. Although we do not have
site-specific data on human-caused fires in the Mt. Toby landscape, we can draw some general
conclusions about the role of such fires from documented occurrences throughout the region
(Patterson and Backman 1988).
Forest fires most often occur in coniferous (e.g., white pine, spruce-fir) and mixed
coniferous-hardwood (e.g., oak-pine) forests on sandy and xeric soils. It is well known that
native Americans used frequent low-intensity ground fires to maintain open habitats in order to
aid hunting, agriculture, and travel. Consequently, it is probably safe to assume that much of the
Connecticut River valley and the fringe uplands, including the Mt. Toby project area, was
subject to frequent low-intensity burning over a period of several centuries preceding earlier
European settlement. Early colonists also used fire as a mechanism for clearing land for
agriculture. As a result, most of the upland forests during colonial times were dominated by the
more fire-adapted species (i.e., those that sprout readily after the above-ground tree is killed) as
well. However, due to the absence of widespread natural fire and effective suppression of
human-caused fires over the past century, the present-day forests bear little evidence of past
fires. This is not universally true throughout the region. Many bare rock mountains below 3,800
feet in New England (e.g., Mount Monadnock) are the result of fire, which destroyed organic
matter and allowed thin soils to be washed away. In the contemporary landscape, prescribed fires
are implemented on a local scale in order to maintain early successional stages, create bird
habitat, remove unwanted species, and reduce amounts of fuel to prevent a potentially
devastating natural fire (Patterson and Backman 1988). Thus, although prescribed fires are not
common, they can be important locally.
Floods.--Floods have myriad effects on aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Floods can
redistribute large quantities of sediment and organic matter, including coarse woody debris,
thereby altering the morphology of stream and river channels. Locally, this can damage fish
spawning habitats and displace invertebrate populations. On the other hand, floods play a critical
role in the maintenance of floodplain riparian ecosystems by periodically depositing sediment
and nutrients. Overall, floods are a natural process in riverine ecosystems and play a key role in
maintaining the dynamic behavior of these system.
The impact of floods on the structure and function of aquatic and riparian ecosystems has
been dramatically altered by human activities. Specifically, the regulation of water flow along
major rivers such as the Connecticut has dramatically altered the flow regime of the river and
effectively eliminated the occurrence of major floods. As a result, floodplain riparian forests are
now largely a remnant ecosystem of a once widespread natural community. In addition, the
impacts of floods have been exacerbated by human manipulation of riparian vegetation. Removal
of trees along river banks has reduced the stability of banks and accelerated erosional processes
(e.g., soil loss). Finally, careless use of industrial and agricultural pollutants in floodplain areas
has resulted in a deterioration of water quality as these pollutants are carried into water bodies by
flood waters.
The Mt. Toby landscape has experienced periodic flooding of the Connecticut River. The
largest recorded flood occurred in March, 1936 following a major rain-on-snow event (i.e.,
heavy rain on deep snow pack). Peak flow in Montague was 236,000 cfs with a peak stage of
49.2 feet above sea level. The flood led to increased sediment deposition in the Connecticut
River bed and associated floodplains and had significant local impacts on channel morphology
(http://www.nws.noaa.gov/er/nerfc/historical/mar1936.htm).
Ice Storms.--Ice storms are common disturbances in the eastern United States. Major ice
storms seem to occur approximately once every five to ten years. Some tree species seem to have
a higher susceptibility to ice damage. For example, trees with needles seem to suffer more
damage because the needles create greater surface area. (Boerner et al. 1988). Although there is
ample evidence of the impact of past ice storms in the Mt. Toby landscape, the visible impacts
are from the last major ice storm in 1998. This storm hit during early spring when the soils,
especially those in low-lying areas adjacent to surface waters, were saturated with water. As a
result, many trees fell along streams and wetlands, resulting in the input of large amounts of
coarse woody debris. Local bank erosion was evident as well and may have reduced habitat
quality for brook trout, which need rocky substrate in order to spawn. However, over time the
coarse woody debris will create pools, offer shelter, and provide a source of nutrients, and
thereby increase the productivity of the system. In the uplands, the patches of downed trees
created openings and available space for new trees to grow, thereby accelerating the gap-phase
regeneration process characteristic of older forests in this region.
Insects and Disease.–Although native insect and disease outbreaks have certainly influenced
present-day forests, exotic insects and diseases have had a much more dramatic impact on
vegetation over the past century. Globalization has facilitated the introduction and spread of
exotic insect pests and diseases throughout North America. Exotic pests have caused severe
damage to ecosystems across the United States. Due to their exotic nature, they have no natural
enemies or controls in a foreign ecosystem. Though often impractical, artificial control measures
are often required since native predators and/or parasites are usually insufficient. Management
techniques sometimes involve chemical agents, which often create more ecological damage.
Some chemical agents are specific to a family of insects or pathogens; however, some chemicals
indiscriminately kill many different types of organisms, including native and beneficial species.
As the number and variety of exotic pests continue to increase, managers must decide how best
to eliminate the invading species while retaining native populations. Managers have the task of
finding the best solution given all options, which could involve leaving the exotics as they
presently exist.
In the Mt. Toby project area, there are several notable exotic insects and diseases, including
hemlock woolly adelgid, gypsy moth, Dutch Elm disease (DED), beech bark scale, hemlock
loopers, spruce budworm, and hemlock borer (USDA 1997). Unfortunately, there are no studies
that look at the effects of these pests on the Mt. Toby landscape in particular, but it is not
inappropriate to infer general conclusions about their effects on the Mt. Toby landscape.
•
Hemlock woolly adelgid
(HWA) is arguably the pest of most concern presently, given the
nature of the Mt. Toby landscape. Introduced to the United States in 1927 form the Orient,
this pest is common from the Smoky Mountains through much of Massachusetts and has had
devastating impacts eastern hemlock forests. HWA is also found in the Pacific Northwest,
but it has not caused as much damage since the western hemlock species, Tsuga
heterophylla, is more resistant to the insect (Johnson and Lyon 1988). HWA is an aphid-like
insect that sucks sap from twigs of the eastern hemlock, causing severe needle loss, bud
mortality, and branch and tree mortality within four years. HWA has been found across much
of the state, including several locations on Mt. Tom, in Springfield, and on the University of
Massachusetts campus, and is suspected to exist within parts of the Mt. Toby project area.
Beech/hemlock forests of Pennsylvania have experienced virtually a complete removal of all
hemlock stands (M. McClure, pers. comm). From the years 1984-1994 in a 7,700ha study
area in New Jersey, 44% of the hemlocks had experienced moderate to severe defoliation and
9% had died (Royle and Lathrop 1997). Similarly, hemlocks in Connecticut have
experienced up to 99% mortality in the southern portion of the state. There are currently very
few hemlock trees in Connecticut without woolly adelgid infestation.
Hemlocks are extremely important to forest ecosystems in New England, specifically to the
Mt. Toby project area; therefore, the HWA has the potential to have profound impacts.
Hemlocks provide distinct microclimates, soil conditions, and habitat for animal species, and
provide a valuable source of timber for humans (Orwig and Foster 1998). Specifically, the
hemlock decline in southern New England (measured at a site in Connecticut) has been
associated with increased light to understory and increased seedling regeneration (Orwig and
Foster 1998), especially black birch, and exotics such as Ailanthus (tree-of-heaven) (Orwig
and Foster 1998). The loss of hemlock has also increased the potential for nitrogen leaching
from sites where hemlocks have declined. Current research is investigating the potential
effects of loss of hemlock from the forest on breeding birds (J. Garrett pers. comm.). Current
research is investigating the possibility of introducing ladybeetles from the Orient which are
the native predators of HWA (McClure 1995, Sasaji and McClure 1997). This potential
solution raises additional concerns regarding the complications due to introducing another
exotic species and the lack of understanding of how it would affect native beetles their
habitat, niches, and food sources.
•
The
gypsy moth
was first introduced to North America in Boston in 1869 in an attempt to
create a silk industry. Gypsy moths escaped captivity and spread rapidly across New
England. The species has experienced many eruptions over the past century and has become
a major forest defoliator. In 1981, an enormous outbreak of gypsy moth caterpillars
defoliated much of the hardwood forests across the region--Mt. Toby was no exception.
Interestingly, oak defoliation and dieback during the 1981 outbreak led to substantial
increase in black birch regeneration in part of the Quabbin watershed (T. Kyker-Snowman,
pers. comm.).
Gypsy moths do the most damage in their caterpillar stage when they feed on several tree
species. Oaks (Quercus sp.), especially the white oak group, are the preferred forage species;
although secondary species such as all other deciduous trees are also readily consumed.
During years of large population outbreaks, the caterpillars consume normally unpalatable
foliage like pine and hemlock (Johnson and Lyon 1988). Extensive loss of oak dominated
forests can adversely impact wildlife species that depend on the acorn mast (e.g., turkey) or
preferred browse (e.g., white-tailed deer). Currently, the Asian gypsy moth is the highest
priority in terms of biological control. This species was introduced on both east and west
coasts of North America and is a larger threat because of its diverse diet, the female's
capability of extended flight, and the potential for hybrid vigor (USDA 1997). Currently two
parasites (NPV, a virus, and an entomopathogenic fungus) are keeping populations of gypsy
moth below severe outbreak levels.
•
The
Asian long-horned beetle
is another exotic insect pest that has the potential to affect the
Mt. Toby project area in the future. Currently, the beetle has been found only in metro New
York and Chicago regions, but it poses a serious risk to eastern hardwood forests, including
those in Massachusetts (USDAFS 2000). The beetle has adopted a large host range of
species, and it attacks and kills even healthy trees, atypical of boring beetles. Management
strategies, prevention measures, and control methods have yet to be developed and
implemented.
•
Chestnut blight
, brought in on Chinese chestnut from the Orient, where it is a native
pathogen, eliminated American chestnut from the eastern forests during the early 1900's. The
blight was first discovered in New York City in 1904 and within fifty years had spread
throughout the native range of chestnut. The fungus girdles stems when they reach a certain
size, killing the above ground parts of the tree, but leaving the roots which in turn allow trees
to resprout from stumps. As a result, chestnut trees continue to re-sprout, living until sapling
size when the fungus penetrates the bark (Sinclair et al. 1987). Since chestnut held a
dominant position in the landscape, when the blight killed chestnut trees, the extent of
disturbance was large. After European settlement, chestnut had resprouted vigorously from
stumps during land clearing. When white pine was harvested from abandoned farm fields,
chestnut resprouted as well. Given the extent of agriculture in the Mt. Toby project area,
chestnut probably was not as prevalent there as it was elsewhere in New England. The
Connecticut River floodplain, as well as the northern slope of Mt. Toby, however, were
dominated by agriculture. In these areas, chestnut was probably more common and likely
chestnut blight disturbed these areas more. Chestnut was also a valuable wildlife tree, used
by many mammals and birds which foraged for its seeds.
•
Dutch elm disease
(DED) has also been a prominent disturbance force within the New
England landscape. Dutch elm disease arrived from Europe before 1930 in elm logs infested
with European elm bark beetle. The beetle vectors the fungus that causes DED; the native
elm bark beetle also vectors the fungus, but not to the same extent (Johnson and Lyon 1988).
While DED wreaked havoc in urban forests (primarily as a result of monoculture plantings of
American elms), it was less devastating to endemic Massachusetts forests. American elm is
normally a floodplain tree, and as such, would likely have been found in abundance along the
Connecticut River Valley, including the western section of the Mt. Toby project area.
American elm's prevalence has likely been greatly reduced on the Connecticut River
floodplain as a result of DED. Furthermore, it has been documented in a Minnesota
floodplain forest that the loss of American elm in conjunction with other disturbance factors
has dramatically altered breeding bird communities (Canterbury and Blockstein 1997).
Planted in monoculture as a street tree, the loss of American elm has significantly altered the
design and appearance of many New England towns.
•
Beech bark disease
, another introduced exotic pest, is a complex organism consisting of both
an insect vector and a parasitic fungus. Beech scale vectors a species of Nectria fungus, that
kills the cambium of beech trees. A dominant canopy species valued by wildlife for its buds
and nuts for forage, beech is not as valuable for timber production. Its mortality in the Mt.
Toby project area has likely allowed other canopy dominant trees to increase in growth, as
well as created gaps to facilitate understory regeneration for more light-dependent species.
For example, in the Allegheny Mountains of Central New York, diffuse gaps created by
beech mortality allowed sugar maples to increase their radial growth over 30% from sugar
maples not in gaps (DiGregario et al 1999). Despite gap generation, further research done in
New Hampshire has found no conclusive evidence to suggest that there is an increase in
species diversity (plants) as a result of beech mortality and the gaps thereby provided (Leak
and Smith 1996).
Invasive Plants.--Invasive exotic plant species introduced to the United States have disturbed
native natural plant processes in much the same way as exotic diseases and insects. Like exotic
insects and diseases, non-native plants lack native controls (like herbivores and pathogens).
Several non-native plants have been introduced deliberately for their vigorous growth potential,
erosion control, visual screening, windbreaks, and food for wildlife. For example, Oriental
bittersweet, a climbing vine, has been actively planted by the Massachusetts Division of
Fisheries and Wildlife on several state-owned management areas. The seeds and fruits produced
by bittersweet are easily dispersed by birds and wildlife, attracted to them by their bright orange
color. The spread of exotic plants is also attributed to human movement and practices.
Ornamental trees and shrubs, frequently exotic species, are regularly planted in residential
landscapes in lieu of native species. Recreational boating can transfer seeds and organisms to
new locations, previously not invaded. Furthermore, roadsides, abandoned fields, and
rights-of-way have proved to be suitable habitat for various invasives which thrive in harsher
growing conditions. Often occurring in large patches, invasives outcompete native plants for
habitat, reducing the biodiversity of natural areas and reducing native species' populations
(Weatherbee et al. 1998). By altering the biodiversity and therefore the relationships between
native plant and animal species, invasives have in some cases altered or completely changed the
characteristics of complex food webs, ultimately leading to the decline of both native plant and
animal species (Levine and D'Antonio 1999). Studies of interactions between invasive plants and
native organisms from the Galapagos Islands to grasslands in South Africa have shown a
significant decrease in native biodiversity when exotic plants invade an ecosystem (Mauchamp
et al. 1998, Samways et al. 1996). Invasives successfully outcompete native vegetation, quickly
colonizing and dominating an area.
There are many documented exotic invasive plants in the Mt. Toby project area, including,
Norway maple, Oriental bittersweet, autumn olive, and Japanese knotweed, purple loosestrife
(Lythrum salicaria), Phragmites (Phragmites australis), and Eurasian water-milfoil
(Myrophyllum spicatum) (Weatherbee et al. 1998).
•
Purple loosestrife
, listed by both government agencies and The Nature Conservancy as one
of the top ten worst invasive species in United States ecosystems, was brought to New
England in the early 1800s, as an ornamental. A hardy wetland plant characterized by bright
purple flower spikes, it has moved rapidly north into Canada, south into Virginia, and west
through the Great Lakes, earning its nickname of "purple plague". Outcompeting native
species, purple loosestrife creates an impenetrable mat of root and stem systems throughout
wetland areas. Mature loosestrife propagates vegetatively by root or stem segments. Each
plant has the capacity to produce millions of seeds, which are then dispersed by wind and
water. Loss of both native species and habitat diversity is a significant threat to wildlife,
including several rare amphibians and butterflies that depend on wetlands for food and
shelter. Currently several studies at Cornell University are attempting to find ways of
eradicating purple loosestrife. One potential biological control involves the use of Eurasian
leaf-eating beetles (Weatherbee et al. 1998).
•
Phragmites
is a tall grass which can reach heights of fifteen feet and sprouts plume-like seed
heads. Originally a native species of brackish marshes in Massachusetts, phragmites has
expanded its range and is now a native invasive species, frequently occurring on disturbed
sites (Weatherbee et al. 1998). By following along salt-laden highway margins and rights of
way corridors, phragmites spread into adjacent lands, choking out native vegetation and
reducing habitat to wildlife. Several methods have been utilized in an attempt to remove
phragmites. These methods have met with some success and include flooding during the
growing season (approximately four months), dredging, and prescribed burning. Often, a
combination of these approaches have met with the most success. Phragmites is found in the
Connecticut River floodplain, but was not observed during our class field trips to the project
area.
•
Eurasian water-milfoil
, is a rooted aquatic vascular plant with a long stem and many finely
divided leaves. The exact origin and date of Eurasian water-milfoil arrival to the United
States has often been confused due to very similar native species M. exalbescens and M.
sibiricum which are considered endemic to North American (Aiken and McNeill 1980). The
general consensus regarding the milfoil's arrival is that it was introduced to the United States
in the late 1880's from the emptying of ship ballast (Rawls 1978, Aiken et al. 1979, Moore
1984). By the mid-1980s, milfoil had spread to 33 states and 3 Canadian provinces (Couch
and Nelson 1986). As of 1994, Eurasian water-milfoil can be found in 40 states and 3
provinces and is still spreading (Sheldon and Creed 1995). Partnership members have
observed Eurasian water-milfoil in Cranberry Pond within the last year. It is therefore likely
to be present in other aquatic environments within the project area. Once established in an
aquatic environment, common human recreational tools such as boats (especially propellers)
and boat trailers readily transport milfoil to other bodies of water. Once introduced into a
lake or pond, milfoil often quickly becomes the dominant plant. Unlike native aquatic plants,
Eurasian water-milfoil grows into think impenetrable mats, leaving no room for other plant
species to compete for light (Sheldon and Creed 1995). The extensive beds of Eurasian
water-milfoil have detrimental impacts on fish, plants, and invertebrates which depend on
native aquatic vegetation. Furthermore, extensive colonies of the milfoil restrict the use of
open water for navigation, recreational boating, swimming, and in some instances fishing.
Both chemical and physical methods have been implemented in an effort to control the
infestations. Herbicides, plant harvesting, lake drawdowns, and bottom barriers that exclude
light have all been utilized. However, none of these methods provides long-term controls or
eradication. Some new methods are currently being researched including the possibility of
introducing a "natural enemy" such as the aquatic weevil Eubrychiopsis lecontei. This weevil
has proven to be effective in pool experiments and is being tested on lake environments
(Sheldon and Creed 1995).
Beaver.--Beaver was once a common resident of the Connecticut River valley, but was
extirpated from the region during the 1800's as a result of over harvesting and habitat loss. As the
forests recovered during the 19th century, beaver eventually re-established itself in
Massachusetts in1928 and subsequently spread throughout most of their original range. They are
now quite common in the region, albeit much less so than during the pre-settlement period. As
the population has grown and expanded its distribution, the number of beaver-human conflicts
has increased. Currently, beaver are viewed as a nuisance animal in several suburban and
agricultural areas, causing crop loss, cutting of valuable trees, and flooding property (Langlois
1994 ).
Beavers are widely considered to be a keystone species by many conservationists. Through
their engineering activities, beavers create wetlands, which have many irreplaceable values
within an ecosystem. Beavers are also important contributors to the fur trade, generating over
$40,000 in revenue in Massachusetts annually (Langlois 1994 ). Currently, MDFW is managing
beaver populations in order to make them available to trappers while at the same time
maintaining a population within the carrying capacity of the available suitable habitat, in
addition to implementing a damage/mitigation plan for affected property (Langlois 1994).
In the Mt. Toby project area, beavers may play an important role in enhancing landscape
diversity. Specifically, beaver impoundments are a unique wetland community that adds to the
variety of natural communities in the landscape and provide habitats for a wide range of
organisms. Due to past population control efforts, however, the beaver population is very scarce
within the project area. The only known locations of inactive beaver impoundments are in the
headwaters of the Cranberry Brook watershed. Beaver activity is common in Cranberry Pond
itself.
Overabundant Deer.–Deer populations have expanded over recent years and are now larger
than any time in recorded history. This overabundance of deer has presented a problem for the
natural regeneration of trees in many forested areas of the region. In examining the consequences
of overabundant deer populations in New England, it is important to bear in mind this imbalance
is the result of habitat instability brought about by human activities. Man has altered the Mt.
Toby environment largely through agriculture, forestry, and predator removal. During the past
two centuries, the area was partially cleared for agriculture, intensively utilized for forest
products, and devastated by the 1938 hurricane. The combination of these agents created and
maintained an open canopy forest that encouraged prolific growth of understory vegetation,
important as deer forage.
The greatest impact of overabundant deer populations is on the composition and structure of
understory vegetation. Through selective and intense browsing of saplings, deer populations
have significantly altered the understory vegetation in many forests. Specifically, selective
browsing on the most palatable forage species has resulted in a shift in understory composition.
In areas subject to intensive browsing, all tree regeneration has been prevented. These effects
have potentially long-lasting impacts on the successional development of forest stands.
Agriculture.--Mount Toby is the largest tract of primary forest in Central Massachusetts. The
core of the Mt. Toby project area was never cleared for subsistence farming by early European
settlers, and unlike much of New England, the core was not transformed into pasture and
cropland during the early 1900s. Today the central forested area remains relatively intact.
However, the southern and western boundaries of the project sector boast rich, loamy
Connecticut River floodplain soils, which have provided an ideal environment for agricultural
and pastoral practices. From Native American swidden agriculture to modern mechanized
farming, these flood plains have been maintained continually as agricultural land. Currently,
these lands support fields of corn, tobacco, potato, cucumber, and squash. In 1997, pasture and
agricultural land comprised approximately ten percent of the landscape in the project area, and
totaled 250 hectares divided into fifty separate patches. These agricultural patches are relatively
flat and possess fertile soils and a favorable climate. The valley experiences approximately 142
days of frost-free temperatures annually and approximately 44 inches of rain (Norwood, 1998).
In economic terms, this agriculture supplies not only fruits and vegetables, dairy and meat
products, but a network of employment and income for residents in the Pioneer Valley. The
fields themselves provide edge habitat for certain plant and animal species and forage area for
migratory birds. But although farms and farming practices generally benefit the local human
population, the resultant landscapes can have a serious effect on the surrounding ecosystems. A
major disturbance associated with clearing land for agricultural and pastoral use is wind damage.
Wind-throw is a common natural disturbance and is often exacerbated by human manipulation of
the landscape. Areas void of trees afford storms with an opportunity to gain momentum and
destroy the forest edge. Wind-throw can alter soil integrity: wind erosion removes the lighter
and less dense soil particles such as clays, silts and organic matter, reducing overall soil
productivity. The resulting dust may enter suspension and become part of the atmospheric dust
load, causing decreased visibility and siltation in water areas.
Other disturbances associate with agriculture include the effects of insecticides, fungicides
and herbicides. The threat of molds, exotic weed invasion and large pest invasions instigates the
mass application of these substances. The various pests and exotic species regularly develop an
immunity to such chemical methods, building high dose tolerances. Such successful pest
responses, combined with an indiscriminate application of chemicals among both target and
non-target organisms, invariably creates imbalances in species populations and reductions in
species diversity. As in the case of insecticides, beneficial predator species are compromised
along with the pest species, leading to secondary pest outbreaks. Additionally, many pest
controls (such as Aldicarb) are known to have carcinogenic and mutagenic effects on birds, fish,
bees, and earthworms.
Agricultural practices also animate or spur numerous other ecological disturbances, including
increased drought conditions, run-off, irrigation erosion, habitat fragmentation, loss of biological
diversity, non-point pollution, downstream sediment yield, homogeneous plant communities,
salinization of soils, nitrification, eutrophication, and irregular pH levels. Farmers are trying to
diminish these effects, but often land management methods are expensive and difficult to
implement. Landowners opt to avoid these expenses by dividing the land into small parcels and
selling segments to residential builders for a hefty profit. The spread of residential development
continues to threaten the persistence of agriculturally productive lands. For example, half of
Sunderland's farms went out of business between 1965 and 1968; in 1937 there were sixty-four
dairy farms operating and in 1968 there were six (Norwood, 1998). The majority of this farm
land was sold directly for residential development.
Residential Development.--Despite the several major pest, pathogen, and pollution problems
that have adversely affected the Mt. Toby project area's forest cover, an apparently greater threat
comes from residential development. Forested acreage has actually increased by two percent in
Massachusetts west of Worcester County since 1985 (MA-DEM 2000). However, a
Massachusetts Audubon Society (MAS) report (1999) revealed that development in the southern
half of the Connecticut River Valley is dramatically increasing. Due primarily to residential
expansion (i.e., suburban sprawl), the development is causing irreversible harm to natural
habitats (MAS 1999). Not surprisingly, in spite of only 7% population growth in Massachusetts
between 1980 and 1996, the number of houses increased 16% and the amount of land developed
increased 30% during the same period. MAS has suggested that these diverging curves of
population growth, housing, and land development indicate suburban sprawl. As noted above,
one of the foremost areas of sprawl occurrence is in the southern half of the Connecticut River
Valley (MAS 1999).
Development is most easily undertaken in flat landscapes, bereft of rocky soils; the same is
true of agriculture. If it were not for legislation to protect farmland in the Pioneer Valley (R.
Prokopy pers. comm.), much more of the current agricultural land would likely be under
residential development. This is evidenced in land use data, which shows considerably more
development in low-lying areas along the Connecticut River, and less development in the steep
sloped forested areas.
In the Mt. Toby project area, residential development has occurred primarily in Sunderland.
From the time of European settlement (approximately 1620) to the beginning of the early
modern period (approximately 1915), agriculture was the main land use in the project area.
Although the region still concentrates on agriculture, residential development has significantly
increased (Pioneer Valley Planning Commission, current as of 1998). Today much of the
developed space of the Mt. Toby project area is in fact characterized as rural-residential. Due to
Sunderland's history of agriculture, many local residents want to maintain the rural and
agricultural character of the region. Almost in spite of this desire, statistics show that Sunderland
has the most rental units per capita than any other municipality in the state of Massachusetts
except for Boston (Massachusetts Department of Housing and Community Development). The
cause is doubtless the proximity to the University of Massachusetts and Amherst College in
nearby Amherst. The region surrounding Mt. Toby is witnessing a boom in new homes and
rental properties; many students and faculty find housing in these local 'bedroom communities'.
Statistics also indicate an influx of young families from such urban centers as Boston, Hartford,
Springfield and Worcester.
Growing populations, and the residential and commercial development that attends it,
generally confer pressure on the land and on the community resource base. New construction
carries with it the need for power lines and paved roads, sewage systems, trash removal, and
sources of clean water. Water tables become in danger of pollution and over-use (with, for
example, increased wells for bathing and cooking, washing machines and dish washers).
Ornamental landscaping and lawns further displace the natural landscape, posing an additional
stress to biological diversity.
Utilities and commercial sites also place immediate and often long-term stress on the local
ecology. In Montague, for example, Northeast Utilities owns a 2,000-acre parcel of undeveloped
land. In the 1970's a twin nuclear power plant was intended on this site; the plant was not built,
but the company retains plans for some type of power facility. There will likely be a direct
correspondence between the demand for such a facility and the rise in residential development.
Perhaps the most grave threat to the water supply and to the overall health of the local ecology
may be the extraction of rock for gravel in operations close the Mt. Toby project area.
Privately owned land is becoming fragmented into smaller parcels: the size of the average
non-industrial private forest parcel in Massachusetts decreased from 23.4 ac to 10.6 ac between
1976 to 1989 (Kittredge et al. 1996). In the project area, between 1971 and 1997 the total area of
forest and pasture decreased and the number of patches of forest and pasture patches increased as
these land cover types were reduced and fragmented by residential development (Table 1).
Similarly, the largest patch index increased in light-density residential areas, particularly from
1985 to 1997, and correspondingly decreased in forest, cropland, and pasture (Table 1). Smaller
forest parcels make forest management more difficult (e.g. management of timber or for
biological diversity). Fragmentation also accelerates the edge density of forest and pasture. Of
the three main land use types (forest, cropland and pasture) the percentage of total area of
pasture has decreased most.
Table 1. FRAGSTATS output measuring the extent and configuration of forest, cropland,
pasture, and residential patches in the Mt. Toby project area.
The land in Massachusetts that was once converted to pasture and has returned largely to
forest over the last 150 years (Foster 1995); the impact of this conversion is still seen in the
composition of forest flora and fauna. But modern residential development involves impervious
surfaces such as asphalt roads and concrete building foundations. Ecological recovery and
succession at these points is compromised, perhaps severely. Other present and potential
stressors generated by residential development include pollution from car emissions, leaching of
residential landscape chemicals, and other non-point source pollutants. As recreational use on
Mt. Toby increases, so will the threat of soil compaction, erosion, littering and noise pollution.
With habitat fragmentation, source and sink wildlife populations may become entirely cut off
from the whole, thereby creating a suite of problems relating to that one issue. An increase in the
direct conflict between wildlife and humans is also anticipated.
Roads.--There is a network of dirt, gravel and paved roads, railroads and foot trails that
border and traverse the Mt. Toby project area. There are 13.5 miles of dirt roads, 28.6 miles of
paved roads, 21.6 miles of foot trails, 6 miles of one-lane gravel roads, 4.9 miles of two-lane
gravel roads, and 3.8 miles of railroad. The immediate consequences of road construction are the
fragmentation of habitat, the reduction of habitat (with the removal of trees and understory
vegetation), and soil compaction and erosion. The indirect effects are more various and subtle,
but no less demonstrative of significant ecological disturbance.
Several highways surround the Mt. Toby project area: Routes 47, 63, 116, and Interstate 91.
These roads directly alter wildlife behavior and movement patterns within and across the project
area. Certain animal species exploit resources supported by roads: birds may use gravel and
pebbles as a digestive aid; birds and mammals may consume road salt and utilize the protection
of dense roadside vegetation; snakes are drawn to the warm asphalt as a source of temperature
regulation. These offerings come with a cost: these opportunists are vulnerable to vehicular
traffic. Scavengers such as vultures, crows, and coyotes, which feast on road kill, are particularly
susceptible victims. Loss of habitat puts pressure on species such as deer and moose to find new
resources. The incursion of roads into wild forested areas, combined with this added pressure for
resources, has led to an increase in car accidents and animal deaths. Although no species has
successfully adapted to the prevalence of roads, some species, such as deer caught in residential
areas, have become habituated to them; other species, such as white footed mice, learn to avoid
them.
Roads play a pivotal role in shaping the spatial and genetic dynamics of wildlife populations.
Even small, unpaved roads that prohibit public traffic can alter animal movement, perception,
and interaction. When roads fragment a population, the remaining smaller groups grow more
vulnerable to genetic deterioration, random drift, environmental catastrophes, fluctuations in
habitat, and demographic changes.
Pollution from roads is varied and extensive; an immediate form is noise. Noise pollution
causes many animals to alter their patterns of movement and predation; other more subtle
behavior changes may be seen, especially in species (like songbirds) that depend on auditory
signals. Vehicles also produce toxins and pollutants such as heavy metals, CO2, and CO, all of
which have serious cumulative effects. The combustion of gasoline and the wear of tires result in
lead contamination of roadsides. This lead may persist in soils and the food web for
detrimentally long spans of time. This lead also moves through the food chain, from plants to
herbivores and omnivores to the carnivores which feed on them. These effects cross easily
between aquatic and terrestrial pathways. Pollutants such as herbicides, deicing salts, and
abrasives are introduced with road maintenance. Moreover, drainage of salt laden water and
sediment from roads into aquatic ecosystems may cause algal blooms and sedimentation, both of
which can be extremely toxic to fish.
Besides direct habitat loss, roads facilitate the invasion of weeds, pests, and pathogens, and
introduce a variety of edge effects. Roads themselves preempt wildlife habitat. Road
construction may expose low nutrient subsoils, reduce soil water holding capacity, and increase
vulnerability to landslides and erosion; thus limiting roadside site productivity in the long term.
There is a claim that increases in grassland, edge, and other invasive species are beneficial, but
they are in fact a biological trap and a mortality sink for animal populations. Many of these
invasive species have detrimental effects on native species as well. 'Edge' was once considered to
be favorable since many game species are edge-adapted. Edge is now seen as one of the major
causes of fragmentation, especially when it cuts through an intact forest. Roads introduce a
narrow swath of edge habitat; typically, forest edge is not in a straight line but rather a zone of
influence that varies in width. Narrow logging roads or hiking trails with no maintained verge
have little edge effect, especially when surrounded by tall forest canopy. As roads are 'improved',
road clearance increases, allowing more penetration of sunlight and wind, making the roadside a
more desirable habitat for edge species. Interstate highways and two-lane roads with maintained
rights-of-way are lined with edge habitat.
Road construction alters the hydrology of watersheds through changes in water quantity and
quality, stream channel morphology, and ground water levels. Paved roads increase the amount
of impervious surface in a watershed, resulting in substantial increases in overland flow and
storm discharges which usually cause flooding downstream. When a roadbed is raised above the
surrounding land surface, it will act as a dam and alter surface water flow patterns, restricting the
amount of water that reaches downstream areas. Roads also concentrate surface water flow in a
smaller area, which increases erosion. Water tables are also lowered in the vicinity of a road. It is
a common construction technique to avoid stream crossings by adding culvert bridges or altering
the streams. Streams are often channelized. This removes the natural diverse substrate materials;
increases sediment loads; lowers the stream channel and drains adjacent wetlands. It reduces the
stability of banks and exacerbates downstream flooding.
Mining.--Mining is another anthropogenic disturbance present in the project area. The
mineral products (mainly sand, gravel and stone) are extracted almost exclusively for
construction. (Another clear indicator of the way in which human disturbances encourage and
advance one another). In fact these products account for more than 90 percent of mineral
production value in the entire state of Massachusetts. The other 10 percent is comprised
primarily of clay, lime and peat (Barton 1976).
In 1971, the project area contained two mining sites with a total area of 1.77 hectares (0.046
percent of the landscape). The trend over time shows an increase in the number and size of sites.
In 1997, there were five mining sites with a total area of 18.52 hectares (0.483 percent of the
landscape) (Table 2). Accordingly, the total edge and core area also increased.
Table 2. Primary mining sites in the Mount Toby project area (as of 1997).
When in progress, mining eliminates most of the fish and wildlife on the site and in the
surrounding area. When a mining operation is complete, the land remains poor habitat.
Moreover, since vegetative cover is removed before and during the course of mining, roads and
other facilities are constructed, which in turn pollute the ecology of the land. The removal of the
top soil results in the exposure of acid forming materials. Mining thus accelerates the erosion,
acid mined drainage, and the sedimentation which contaminate aquatic systems. In fact, most of
the mining sites as shown on the maps are located adjacent to stream systems such as the
Cranberry Pond Brook and Whitmore Brook (part of the Connecticut River system); both of
which represent key habitats for many species of cold water fish.
A solution to this type of disturbance (i.e. erosion, sedimentation) is the creation of buffer
strips of vegetation along the streams. The higher plants overhanging the water provide shade -
preventing extremely high water temperature - and they provide habitat for insects, a food source
for many aquatic organisms. Wider buffer strips provide more erosion control as well.
Logging.--Logging practices within the Mt. Toby project area can be divided into two
sub-practices: direct commercial harvesting and incidental logging which coincides with the
dominant human stressors on the environment (road construction and agricultural and residential
clearing, for example). Commercial timber harvesting has had a relatively low impact upon the
face of the landscape; the forest encompasses approximately the same area as pre-settlement.
The more serious disturbance occurs in the interplay between logging practices and the human
activities which must, in the most fundamental sense, contract them. Such conditional effects of
logging are observed in the wake of these activities.
Cowls timber company (est. 1741) is the dominant commercial harvester of wood within the
Toby bounds. The company's largest contiguous ownership (400.593 acres) is composed of
thirteen contiguous parcels spanning the southeast border between Sunderland and Leverett; the
largest single parcel of forested land lies in Leverett. Additionally, Cowls owns six parcels along
the eastern boundary of the project area; three other parcels of land are owned in the south part
of Sunderland. Collectively, Cowls owns 629.022 acres of forested land within the Mt. Toby
project area.
The Cowls timber company employs harvesting methods typical of the region. They
selectively cut a mixture of pine, oak, and hemlock. A major criticism put forth by some forest
managers and wildlife biologists is that this practice does not create early successional
vegetation, which may be vital for species habitat and forest regeneration. Although Cowls
manages their land for a steady supply of wood products, smaller harvesters, particularly private
land owners. selectively 'high-grade'. That is, they cut down individual, valuable trees (e.g. white
pine, cherries, and oaks) for profit. After high-grading, subcanopy, shade-tolerant trees (e.g.
beeches, birches, and hemlocks) fill in the gap. Within five years, the light on the forest floor
typically has returned to a pre-harvest state. Selective harvesting effectively inhibits the
regeneration of the more shade-intolerant trees of higher commercial value. Consequently, the
populations of white pine, cherries, and oaks have decreased, while those of shade tolerant
species such as red maple and black birch have risen. In effect, selective cutting has diminished
the diversity of tree species without modifying the age of the forest within the study area (Kelty
personal communication).
Minimal logging occurred in the two decades following the 1938 hurricane; partly because of
the demand for salvage logging and, to a lesser extent, because of the lack of harvestable
material. But in the 1970's and 1980's, timber management accelerated as the forest aged; this
coincided with the expansion of residential development. Currently the study area is defined as
mature forests bordering on residential areas.
Non-Point Source Pollution.–Non-point source pollution (NPS) originates from diffuse
sources and is a result of a variety of everyday activities. NPS pollution results from rainfall or
snowmelt moving over or through the ground and carries both natural and artificial pollutants,
which ultimately accumulate in rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Several NPS pollutants likely impact
the Mt. Toby project area. Agricultural runoff and increased sedimentation from timber
harvesting practices are two primary sources. Runoff from agricultural fields located along the
Connecticut River floodplain and northwest section of the project area likely contains fertilizers,
herbicides, insecticides, and animal waste. In a study of cornfields in Georgia, fertilizer runoff
was found to be a significant source of nitrates in streams and ponds (Torbert et al. 1999). All of
these pollutants are detrimental to aquatic environments and contribute to water body
eutrophication (P. Barten, pers. comm.). Though these pollutants are most likely carried from the
project area via the Connecticut River, their potential for groundwater accumulation would
continue to have adverse effects on parts of the project area.
Silviculture practices most likely have the greatest NPS pollution impact on the study area.
Logging practices generate NPS pollution from road construction, soil disturbance, and
compaction from skidding logs. These practices increase the potential for soil erosion. Overland
flow is increased through soil compaction, and the disturbed soils ultimately erode into stream
channels, directly increasing the sedimentation rate of the streams and wetlands (Satterlund and
Adams 1992). Cranberry Pond, according to Dr. Ross, has gone through an accelerated aging
process including eutrophication and denitrification. Though the actual cause for this has not
been determined, anthropogenic processes, including potential NPS pollution are some of the
hypothesized causes.
The Mt. Toby study area has also been impacted by NPS pollution on smaller scales.
Atmospheric deposition, runoff from roadways and bridges, runoff from construction sites and
malfunctioning septic systems are the most notable. Acidic precipitation resulting primarily from
the harmful emissions of cars and coal burning plants in the Ohio River Valley (EPA 2000)
poses a threat to the streams within the project area as well as Cranberry Pond. Natural buffers in
the water, especially following snow melt in early spring cannot mitigate acidic precipitation,
resulting in a lowering of the pH of the aquatic environment. Runoff from roads often contains
road salt, as well as small concentrations of oil, rubber, and other car pollutants. Runoff from
malfunctioning septic systems can increase nutrient loading into the aquatic environments
(Satterlund and Adams 1992).
The EPA's most recent (1998) National Water Quality Inventory Report informs Congress of
the growing need for federal regulation of NPS pollution. Forestry best management practices
are currently voluntary in the state of Massachusetts, but the state has imposed several strict laws
on septic tanks and pesticide use. Today, Massachusetts requires the filing of timber harvest
plans that incorporate state forestry standards. The state of Massachusetts also integrates
management for sediment and erosion control with broad state planning requirements, which are
ultimately binding on local governments that are now required to adopt and enforce them (EPA
2000).
Locally, air pollution comes from burning of fossil fuels for automobiles, trucks, farm
equipment, trains, recreational vehicles, and electricity production. Other sources of air pollution
include chemical plants, paper mills, and power plants emitting significant amounts of toxic
materials, in addition to carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide from fossil fuel combustion. Over
long periods of time dry cleaners, gas stations, auto-body shops, and consumer chemical
products combine to emit small amounts of toxic pollutants, like ozone, sulfur dioxide, and
nitrogen oxides. The clean air act of 1970 promulgated restrictions on production of sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone and particulate matter. Amendments to the act
have included other toxic air pollutants suspected of having adverse affects on the environment.
Though superficially Mt. Toby does not appear to be suffering from air pollution, in time, toxin
buildup in the atmosphere will begin to show affects with in the project area. Ozone is an
important concern to the long-term productivity and health of trees (Skelly 2000). Other studies
have indicated that mountainous and forested ecosystems are more likely to be affected by
atmospheric pollution compared to a lower, even elevation (Lathrop 2000). High levels of
pollutants can alter the water, carbon, and nutrient cycles of the forest and each individual tree
(McLaughlin 1999). This suggests that the Mt. Toby project area would likely be susceptible to
long-term air pollution stresses.
Abiotic resources
The Mt. Toby landscape contains a complex set of environmental gradients that have
strongly influenced past land use practices and natural community development. These same
abiotic factors will likely have a strong influence on future land use practices and the
biodiversity this landscape supports. In this section, we review the major abiotic factors that
affect the ecological and socio-economic capabilities of the landscape, including soils, water,
terrain, and climate. For each factor, we also describe the affects on land use patterns and the
development and maintenance of natural communities and populations.
Soils.–Soils have a major influence on the organisms (plant and animal) that inhabit a site.
Soils in the Mt. Toby landscape are strongly influenced by the glacial history. In particular, there
are three major types of surficial deposits. The uplands consist largely of glacial till deposited by
the physical action of the advancing and retreating glaciers, whereas the lowlands consist mostly
of sands and gravels deposited as outwash from the retreating glaciers. The deepest sand and
gravel deposits were formed by deltas associated with glacial streams entering lake Hitcock. In
addition to these glacial deposits, there is a narrow band of alluvial soils associated with the
floodplain of the Connecticut River. These surficial deposits have been classified into five
dominant soil series: Hollis, Charlton, Shapleigh, Merrimac, and Hadley. The following are
descriptions of these soil types and the associated land uses and impacts on the Mt. Toby area.
Approximately 50% of Mt. Toby soils are from the Hollis series associated with glacial till.
The four soils (denoted HnC, HnD, HoD and HoF) from this group are described as
"very-extremely rocky fine sandy loam" and differ due to the slope of the land in which they are
found. These soils are found across a broad array of elevations on Mt. Toby and coincide with
mainly wooded areas. They are best for yielding coniferous woodland plants such as white pine
(Pinus strobus) and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), which provide important cover for populous
wildlife such as wild turkey and deer but can also support mixed hardwoods as well. Both forest
types are great habitat for migratory songbirds and woodpeckers. Because of the rockiness of the
soils, the topsoil is not useful for agriculture nor is it suitable for roads or buildings due to the
shallow and ledgy bedrock. Logging for timber is difficult and dangerous because of the nature
of the soil and the erosion that will occur from concentrated water settling on the exposed soil.
Natural disturbances such as ice and windstorms will cause dead trees to richen the soils unless
excessive damage clears the forest.
HoD and HoF soils represent the rockiest of the Hollis soils. HoD is found on slight to
moderate slopes while HoF is characteristic of steeper slopes. The two also differ in their
capacity to hold water. HoD soils generally have a lower moisture-holding capacity than HoF
soils. Because of the woodlands these soils support, many recreational use activities (e.g., hiking
trails and parks) are associated with these soil types.
HnC and HnD soils are less rocky and can support a wider variety of plant communities than
the HoF and HoD soils. HnC and HnD soils are found at the higher elevations on Mt. Toby. The
plant diversity is richer, including both coniferous and hardwood plants as well as herbaceous
upland plants. HnC is found on slight to moderate slopes and can be used to plant cultivated
crops while HnD is found on slopes too steep for agriculture. In addition to high elevations, HnC
soils are found in close proximity to the Connecticut River where local townspeople practice
agriculture.
The glacial tills found in many parts of the mid elevations (400-900 ft. a.s.l.) come from the
Charlton soil series. These soils are described as "extremely stony fine sandy loam." The two soil
types found in the Mt. Toby project area (CnB and CnD) differ slightly in their slope ranges.
These soils generally support woodlands and unimproved pasturelands. Hardwood tree species
and herbaceous upland plants dominate these soils. Although suitable for wood products
production, given the stony soils and relatively steep slopes, logging practices may cause surface
erosion following vegetation removal. Road building and other forms of built development is not
recommended because of the slope of the land and the stoniness of the soils. Favorable wildlife
habitat is provided for wildlife such as deer, fisher, New England cottontail, and many birds.
Natural disturbances such as ice and wind storms will create much coarse woody debris to richen
the soils unless excessive damage clears the forest.
The Shapleigh soil series dominates the eastern portion (Leverett) of the Mt. Toby project
area. The two most frequent soil types, SmC and SmF, are described as "extremely rocky fine
sandy loam." These soils are very shallow, leaving these areas unsuitable for development.
Although some hardwood tree species grow well on these soils, they generally support
coniferous forests that do not provide good yields of timber. If logging is practiced on these
soils, skidways have to be constructed so as not to create washouts. Consequently, these soils
have the highest amount of paved road on its surface.
The Merrimac soil series contains the most numerous soil types (MgA, MgB, MgD, MmA,
MmB, and MmC) in the Mt. Toby project area. These soils range from sandy to fine sandy loam
and make up the sand and gravels associated with glacial outwash deposits. Consequently, it is
on these soils that the most buildings are located. Merrimac soils are best for hardwoods,
herbaceous plants, and grasses, which is convenient for landscaping purposes. However,
landscaping adds chemicals to the soils and alters the natural regeneration processes of plants.
Merrimac soils are also useful agricultural lands, but dry up easily, forcing the use of irrigation
systems. Since these soils are more inland of the Connecticut River, building an efficient
irrigation system is challenging and disruptive to other property, and not feasible if the soil is not
deep enough. Merrimac soils can also be a good source of commercial sand and gravel. The
Warner Brothers company owns and operates a sand and gravel pit on these soils along route 116
in Sunderland. With the many various human disturbances to this soil series, natural disturbances
such as ice storms, wind storms, and frost can result in more dramatic damage to the soil.
Bordering the Connecticut River are the hearty floodplain alluvial soils from the Hadley
series characteristic of flat lands and streams. HbA and HbB soil types, described as "very fine
sandy loam," are all well suited as cropland because of their high water-holding capacity and
slower intake rates than other soils. However, these soils lack abundant organic matter and
therefore require fertilizer and manure to enhance the crop yield, as well as an irrigation system.
Both fertilizer and organic waste may cause toxic runoff to pollute the water of the Connecticut
River or small streams running into it. Irrigation, though not as deleterious as the western portion
of the United States, disrupts the natural flow of a river. These soils are also prone to erosion
because of their location along the banks of the Connecticut River, and therefore require
protection from runoff. Consequently, the lands in Sunderland with Hadley soil types are used
for cropland and pastures.
Water.–The Mt. Toby project area contains a variety of surface water features, including a
section of the Connecticut River (which forms the western boundary), several tributary streams
headwatered in the Mt. Toby highlands, and ponds. There are several waterfalls in the area. The
best examples are located in the northwest portion of the landscape where streams leave the Mt.
Toby highlands or descend over ledges near the Connecticut River. Cranberry Pond, located at
the northeast base of Mt. Toby, is the largest of the ponds, with a surface area of approximately
28 acres (Mt Toby Article ‘untitled' 1991). In 1947 and 1972, the pond was drained and
reclaimed as a trout pond (Morin et al, 1980). Public use of the pond is allowed for fishing,
boating and hunting.
The Mt. Toby landscape contains seven minor watersheds. Cranberry Pond Brook drains
most of the northeastern and northern slopes of Mt. Toby and forms the largest watershed. It
carries surface water to Cranberry Pond and then flows northwesterly through forest and
agricultural fields to the Connecticut River. Long Plain Brook drains most of the eastern and
southeastern slopes of Mt. Toby and forms the second largest watershed. It also flows through a
mixture of forest, wetlands, and agriculture before leaving the project area and eventually
emptying into the Connecticut River south of the project area. In the summer and early fall, the
surface flow dries up near the Sunderland aquifer. The upper section of the brook has a rather
sluggish flow, with sand and silt bottom, beyond this point the flow is more rapid, over a
uniform sand and fine gravel bottom. Organic refuse from the hatchery supports a variety of
invertebrates such as sowbugs and blood worms, which in turn serve as a food source for the
fish. Mohawk Brook is a small watershed that drains a portion of Bull Hill in the southern part of
the project area. It arises from Greene swamp, drops in a spectacular waterfall, and then flows
west through agricultural land. Russel Brook ..... Gunn Brook drains most of the northwestern
slopes of Mt. Toby. It arises from a swamp at the northwest base of the peak, descends through a
narrow wooded ravine, and "concludes in a lovely two-tiered waterfall, a drop of 30 feet down
fern-covered ledges, shortly before it enters Chard Pond" (Mt Toby Lab Article, 1991).
Whitmore Brook.....
The surface waters create numerous lacustrine, palustrine, and riverine communities that
support a wide variety of plant and animal species, including several state-listed rare species. For
example, the endangered shortnose sturgeon inhabits certain sections of the Connecticut River
and American shad spawns near the mouths of Gunn Brook and Cranberry Pond Brook. These
aquatic and wetland communities also support a recreational sport fishery. For example, Gunn
Brook and Long Plain Brook support native brook trout which attract fisherman. Long Plain
Brook is stocked with brook, brown and rainbow trout by the state, and Cranberry Pond has been
managed for largemouth bass and trout fishing through annual stocking. In addition, the seeps
and springs arising from the base of the long Plain delta providing the pure, cold water needed
by the state and private fish hatcheries on the west side of East Plum Tree Road. These surface
waters are also used to irrigate agricultural fields in the Connecticut River valley.
Ground water represents an important abiotic resource in the project area. The long plain
delta, at the southern end of the Mount Toby highlands, is the primary ground water aquifer in
this area. this geologic formation is a 4 km2 highly permeable glacial sand and gravel delta
deposit in both Sunderland and Leverett. The delta has a drainage area of about 8 km2 extending
from Route 116 northeast into Mount Toby State Forest. The major source of recharge to this
important aquifer is from direct precipitation and from stream flow in the Long Plain Brook. The
entire drainage basin for Long Plain Brook functions as a recharge area for the aquifer. This
watershed includes the east slopes of Mount Toby, Roaring Mountain, and the east and south
slopes of the highlands to the south.
Many springs and artesian wells occur along its southwest frontal slopes of the Long Plain
Delta near Route 116. Wells include residential wells on East Plum Tree Road, the Sunderland
town well just north of the Long Plain Brook, Warner Brother's gravel pit well, the Sunderland
State Fish Hatchery well, the National Salmon Station wells, and the Mohawk well field. The
other town well in Sunderland (the Ralicki well) is also within the Mount Toby study region.
The two Sunderland town well constitute the whole public water supply for the town of
Sunderland. Mouth Toby serves as a critical drainage region with aquifers beginning in the study
region which in turn provide for public water to the communities of Montague, Turners Falls,
and Lake Pleasant.
Terrain.–In a mountainous landscape like the Mt. Toby project area, the physical terrain has
a tremendous impact of the structure and function of the ecosystem. The highest point in the
project area is Mt. Toby at an elevation of 386 m. To the southeast of Mt. Toby is Roaring
Mountain at 364 m, followed by Ox hill at 265 m, and finally Bull Hill at about 280 m. Degrees
of slope in the Mt. Toby area have a wide range of variation. The steepest are 80-100%, and
some areas are greater than 100%, these are located directly on mount Toby on the northeast
side. The majority of the degrees of slope in the area are slopes between 20-40% and 40-60 % on
the mountains themselves. Extending away from the mountains in lower lying area slopes are
1-20% and less than 1%. On the western side of the project area the majority of the slopes have a
west to northwest aspect. The central and eastern side of the area is composed of a variety of
different aspects, mainly facing the east and southeast as well as south and south and southwest.
The unique terrain of the mount Toby project area has a direct affect on the types, and variety of
flora and fauna species, which inhabit the region. The varied terrain also affects the surrounding
area composition of soil and vegetation types, due to the influences it has on weather patterns as
well as the amounts allowed sunlight.
Climate.–Regional and local climate interacts with the physical terrain and soils to broadly
influence ecosystem structure and function, disturbance regimes, and ultimately land use. For
example, agricultural practices are strongly influenced by climate, especially growing season
length. Historically, the success of the agricultural industry in the project area has hinged on a
favorable growing season. In addition, periods of drought and exceptionally wet periods can
make practicing agriculture a difficult and risky busy. In the Mount Toby area, for example,
there were notable droughts in 1910 and 1964, and exceptional wet periods in the 1880's, 1890's,
and 1970's. Extreme climatic events have also played a significant role in the history of this
landscape. For example, the hurricane of 1938 produced 13.87 inches of rain in a ten-day period,
resulting in heavy flooding, erosion, and wind damage in the area. Evidence of this storm and its
effects are still visible on Mt. Toby today. Perhaps less obvious is how climate influences
recreational use of the landscape. Mt. Toby attracts recreational activity during all four seasons.
Hiking, mountain biking, horseback riding, and fishing are popular summer activities; whereas
snowshoeing, skiing, snowmobiling, and ice fishing are popular in the winter.
Natural communities/ecosystems
The Mt. Toby project area contains different landscape elements and landscape flows.
Landscape elements can be classified according to the patch-corridor-matrix model. The matrix
is the dominant aspect of the landscape, patches are discrete areas of a different aspect within the
matrix, and corridors are discrete linear elements within the matrix. For example, a landscape
might consist of an agricultural matrix with patches of different forest types and stream and road
corridors. Landscape flows are processes or movements of organisms that connect a landscape.
For example, the movement of water across a landscape and bird migration are landscape flows.
Landscape elements and flows interact with and influence one another, often in a complicated
fashion. The complexity of interactions within an ecosystem makes it difficult, if not impossible,
to understand the ecosystem fully. Qualitative assessments and observations lead to an intuitive
understanding of an ecosystem, but quantitative analysis is a more powerful tool, from which
one can draw more rigorous conclusions than simple observation. To grapple with ecosystem
complexity more effectively, scientists have used the keystone concept (originally proposed by
Paine (1966) as "keystone species." Keystone species are species whose significant and diverse
impacts on ecosystem function greatly exceed their relative abundance. Keystone species are not
necessarily dominant (i.e., abundant) in an ecosystem, yet their removal from the ecosystem
would change the overall composition and function of the ecosystem.
More recently, scientists have expanded the keystone concept to include keystone structures,
processes, and ecosystems. Their definitions are analogous to that of a keystone species. To help
identify keystone flows and elements in the Mt. Toby project area, we analyzed landscape
structure for the area. Landscape structure includes the "…spatial relations among component
parts" (McGarigal and Marks 1995), namely landscape composition and landscape configuration.
Landscape composition refers to the different types of patches in the landscape; in other words,
areas of different physical makeup (defined at a particular resolution) within the landscape.
Landscape configuration refers to the spatial relations between patches; for example, the distance
between similar patches (McGarigal and Marks 1995).
In this section, we identify landscape elements and flows in the Mt. Toby project area and the
interactions among them. We also describe in greater detail keystone structures and flows for the
project area. Each of these analyses is undertaken qualitatively and quantitatively (using
Fragstats software; McGarigal and Marks 1995) at an appropriate spatial scale. We use a
coarse-filter approach to identifying keystone landscape elements in the interest of identifying
communities of importance. One of our chosen patch types, though, specifically identifies rare
and unique habitats, which provides a fine-filter component to our analysis. Finally, we expand
the extent of our analysis to examine the project area in the larger context of a regional
ecosystem (the scale of the Connecticut River watershed). Changing the scale is important
because, as will be demonstrated, the keystone status of an element, flow, or ecosystem can vary
as a function of the scale of investigation.
Matrix.--The matrix for the Mt. Toby project area is forest. Forest covers 80% of the total
project area, for a total of 3059 ha. However, corridors fragment the forest (as will be described
below), requiring a careful interpretation of simple metrics like percent area or total area. The
next most prevalent land cover is agriculture, but it only accounts for 9% of the project area. The
forest matrix interacts with several landscape flows, including wildlife, water, human commodity
uses, and human non-commodity uses. Forested landscapes support several species guilds,
notably forest interior birds like thrushes, tanagers, and grosbeaks; herptiles, like mole
salamanders; and mammals, such as black bears and porcupines. Water flows differently in a
forest than in other matrices; there is less overland flow and more infiltration, which results in
reduced erosion and sedimentation of streams. The organic layer of forest soils filters
precipitation, resulting in lower particulate transport into streams. Forested landscapes support
various human commodity and non-commodity uses. Timber harvest is the primary human
commodity use of the forest; non-commodity human uses are recreational, including hiking,
birding, and cross-country skiing. From this assessment, one can see that the forest matrix (a
landscape element) interacts with landscape flows (like water) differently from another matrix,
like a grassland matrix or sand dune matrix.
Corridors.–Corridors are linear landscape elements defined by their physical form and
context as well as their function. Corridors are frequently keystone landscape elements. For the
relatively small total area corridors encompass, less than 7% of the project area, they
significantly influence several important landscape flows. Noteworthy corridors in the Mt. Toby
project area include the Connecticut River (the western boundary), two utility rights-of-way
(ROW's), and various roads, trails, and streams. Corridors affect disturbance patterns,
transportation of people and exotic species (plant and animal), movement of animals, and
recreation. In the project area, windthrow is the primary disturbance factor, and windthrow is
more common along forest edges than in the forest interior since edge trees are exposed to more
direct winds (Bakken 1995, Foster and Boose 1995). Corridors create edges, increasing
windthrow susceptibility along the edge. Obviously, the corridor must be wide enough to create
a canopy break, or the affect will not be significant. The ROW's, wider roads, and the
Connecticut River all create sufficient edges likely to increase windthrow during storms.
Corridors also facilitate transportation. Before automobiles, the Connecticut River was an
important path to move people and goods from the Mt. Toby project area (especially timber and
agricultural products) to urban areas. Roads serve the same purpose presently (especially
regarding timber harvesting and access to the forest). Within the project area, there are about 150
km of roads and trails. Roads and trails also allow people to access recreation areas, and may
facilitate certain forms of recreational activity (e.g., mountain bikes, off-road vehicles, and
snowmobiles). In addition to human-related transportation, corridors facilitate transportation of
exotic and invasive species and wildlife. It is widely recognized that many insects, plants, and
microorganisms travel via roads and rivers through human assistance. Finally, many animals use
corridors during movements; migratory birds frequently follow rivers during migration (Gill
1990), brown-headed cowbirds utilize roads and ROW's to penetrate forest in search of nests to
parasitize (Chase et al. 2000), and bears prefer trails or ROW's for movement (Hirsch et al.
1999).
In contrast, corridors can sometimes impede landscape flows, especially animal movement.
The Connecticut River clearly is a major impediment to small, non-aquatic animals, which
cannot cross it to reach new habitat. Roads similarly impede animal movement, usually through
direct mortality (roadkill). A high-profile example is white-tailed deer mortality in New England,
carcasses of which are often seen along highways and, increasingly, suburban roads. Annual deer
mortality from reported car accidents in Massachusetts averages between 200-400, although the
actual number is much higher (2,000-4,000) (J. MacDonald pers. comm.). For some organisms, a
wide ROW might be formidable enough to function as a barrier to movement. In the role of an
impermeable barrier, corridors fragment habitat (in this case, forest fragmentation), described
below.
Two final ways in which corridors affect landscape flows are habitat diversity for flora and
fauna, and fragmentation. Each type of corridor except roads creates habitat (floral) diversity,
encouraging faunal diversity. Many birds, herptiles, and mammals prefer edge areas, varying as a
function of the type of edge (river, stream, or ROW). Streams do not necessarily provide
significant edge, but they do provide habitat variety within the landscape. For example,
Louisiana waterthrush prefers streamside habitats for breeding (DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2001).
Even though corridors create edge habitat which is useful to some species, a more insidious role
corridors play is to fragment the landscape. Fragmentation partitions the forest matrix into
discrete patches. Fragstats analysis of the Mt. Toby land use coverage shows forest covering
80% of the landscape. When transportation coverage is added, the analysis reveals a drop in
forest cover to 75%. A five percent loss in forest cover is relatively insignificant to the matrix
status of the forest. However, the number of forest patches increases 800%, and the total edge of
forest patches increases 250% when the transportation coverage is added. Similarly, the largest
patch of forest, measured as a percentage of the landscape area, decreases 84% when
fragmentation caused by roads is considered in landscape analysis. Corridors also fragment
patches, notably the priority habitats (rare and unique communities). Again, while the total area
of priority habitat decreases less than 1%, the number of patches and total edge increase 425%
and 210%, respectively. Contagion of priority habitat also decreases from 99% to 97%, a
significant drop for the landscape, when corridor-related fragmentation is considered (see below
for a discussion of the contagion index). These figures clearly show how corridors fragment
priority habitat patches. Less significant changes occur when corridors interact with wetlands;
we believe this is more a function of the original properties of the wetlands patches (relatively
small and dispersed around the landscape) and laws restricting development near wetlands.
This basic analysis of landscape composition and landscape configuration alludes to the
significant effects of corridors germane to habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation of both the
matrix and patches occurs as a result of corridors. Often, the patches created by fragmentation
are too small for some organisms to use or the corridors present impassable barriers for
organisms. Furthermore, adverse edge effects (like predation and brood parasitism) reduce the
usefulness of remaining patches (McGarigal and Marks 1995).
Patches.–Patches form relatively discrete areas within the matrix. In the forest matrix of Mt.
Toby, several notable patch types occur. We have chosen four distinct patch types for their
critical interactions with landscape flows: rare and unique communities (priority habitat) (378
ha, 10% of the project area), agriculture (350 ha, 9% of the project area), residential and
commercial (238 ha, 6% of the project area), and wetlands (130 ha, 3% of the project area).
Patches are obviously a function of the scale of investigation, because one can easily delineate
dozens of patch types within the Mt. Toby project area depending on how fine a grain one
chooses. For example, while the matrix is forest, we might differentiate between forest types,
such as hardwood and softwood. At a finer resolution, we might differentiate further into
northern hardwoods and transition hardwoods. There will be subtle influences at such scales on
landscape flows; for example, some forest interior birds prefer coniferous habitat, while others
prefer deciduous. Since a coverage for priority habitat already exists, and since we are interested
in more general landscape flows (forest wildlife versus grassland wildlife), we have decided to
complete our analysis at a relatively coarse scale. Coarse scale filters for conservation are useful
in the sense that they protect important communities that are important for overall biodiversity. It
is imperative that we recognize, though, that finer and coarser scales of investigation do exist
and influence landscape flows at other resolutions and extents.
Like corridors, patches also create edges (some harsher than others) that influence
disturbance (windthrow) patterns in the project area. An historical example of this occurred
during the 1938 hurricane, when white pine plantations abutting abandoned fields sustained
significantly more damage than trees within intact forest, although other factors also contributed
to the difference (Foster and Boose 1995). Agriculture and residential patches create a harsher
edge than wetlands since wetlands often sustain hydrophilic trees along their edges. The shifting
mosaic steady-state theory (Bormann and Likens 1979) offers insight into disturbance dynamics
in the Mt. Toby project area. In northern hardwood forests in New England, windthrow is the
predominant disturbance factor, creating small gaps in a patchwork fashion through windthrow
of individual trees and small groups of trees. Disturbance occurs on a small scale, temporally and
spatially. Occasionally, large scale disturbance (severe hurricane damage) affects a greater
spatial extent, but this is less frequent (Foster and O'Keefe 2000). Windthrow gaps do not
significantly fragment the landscape since they occur on a small spatial scale. Conversely,
human disturbance, through development, fragments the landscape significantly.
Patch-created edges also fragment the landscape, and have the same adverse consequences as
described previously for corridors. In particular, residential and agricultural patches fragment the
forest matrix. While the largest single patch of forest contains almost 50% of the project area, the
combined areas of agriculture, residential, and commercial patches only contain 15% of the
project area. Furthermore, there are almost six times as many of these patches as there are forest
patches (when not accounting for corridor-induced fragmentation), an indication of the patchy
nature of the landscape. Many agriculture patches, however, are clustered in the landscape. The
contagion index for agriculture patches is nearly identical to the contagion index for forest
patches (97.1% and 97.0%, respectively). Contagion measures both the interspersion of different
patches and dispersion of a given patch on the landscape (McGarigal and Marks 1995). It is
notable that for the project area, small numerical differences in the contagion index (on the order
of one percentage point) reflect more significant actual differences. The contagion index for
residential patches, in fact, is almost 2 percentage points smaller (meaning that the patches are
more widely distributed within the project area) than forest patches (95.1% and 97.0%,
respectively). It is important to note, however, that much of the core forest area remains
unfragmented by patches; instead, the corridors are more responsible for fragmenting the forest
interior. In addition, our other chosen patches, wetlands and priority habitat tend not to fragment
the landscape at our chosen scale of investigation. Wetlands have softer edges than agriculture
and residential patches; priority habitats are overlaid patches that do not necessarily have
physical edges different from the existing patch edge.
Patches also interact with the movement of water on a landscape. Each of the chosen patch
types (except priority habitat) influences water movement and purity. Residential areas, with
greater impervious surface area increase overland flow. Septic and sewer systems associated
with residential development could affect aquifer quality. Both residential and agricultural
patches consume more water than the forest matrix (through irrigation). Agriculture patches tend
to increase nutrient quantity in water, as overland and stream flow through fields and pasture
picks up applied fertilizers and pesticides (Tillman 1999). Tilled fields also can increase
sedimentation of the Connecticut River through overland flow and stream flow. Although
agriculture patches do not occupy much of the project area (9%), their location and interaction
with streams enhances their contribution to nutrient and sediment transport into the Connecticut
River. Conversely, wetlands can serve as water retention and purification centers (Silvius et al.
2000).
Patch types provide habitat diversity, which may increase biodiversity within the landscape.
Agricultural patches may support grassland bird guilds, wetlands such as vernal pools provide
critical habitat for forest amphibians like mole salamanders, rare communities are designated as
such because they support rare and unique plant and animal communities, residential patches
also support a distinct guild of species adapted to that habitat (e.g., American robins and gray
squirrels thrive in residential areas). Patches within the matrix, however, do not necessarily
provide significant habitat diversity. In other words, while patches create edges that support edge
species, the habitat contained within the patches themselves might not be large enough to
support species normally associated with the habitat. For example, while bobolinks and
meadowlarks nest in several agriculture patches in the project area, the patches are not large
enough to sustain breeding higher-order predators commonly associated with grassland habitat
like northern harrier and short-eared owl (Brian Kane, pers. obs.; DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2001).
The average size for agriculture patches is only 3.5 ha (1.9 ha if accounting for road
fragmentation). Smaller agriculture patches do not support breeding grassland birds, but can
provide migration stopover and wintering habitat (Brian Kane, pers. obs.; Gill 1990).
Keystone Landscape Elements.--Keystone landscape elements in the Mt. Toby project area
include roads and ROW's, the Connecticut River, priority habitat, wetlands, and residential
patches. Keystone landscape flows in the Mt. Toby project area include water, humans, and flora
and fauna (including exotic and invasive species). We consider elements and flows as keystones
based on their impact (positive or negative) on the Mt. Toby project area. The keystone
landscape elements significantly interact with the keystone landscape flows, to the degree that
altering any one of them has the potential to alter dramatically the ecological and anthropogenic
aspects of the Mt. Toby ecosystem.
Roads and ROW's are keystone corridors because of their impact fragmenting the landscape
(matrix and patches) and increasing edges in the landscape. They also facilitate transportation
and movement of people, animals, plants, and invasives. Finally, they influence disturbance
patterns. The Connecticut River is a keystone corridor for reasons described in the section on
corridors. Additionally, it influences disturbance in another way, flooding. Flooding is an
important disturbance process in the project area even though it does not affect a large portion of
the area. Floods influence the soil conditions and plant and animal communities adjacent to the
river; during catastrophic floods, human artifacts on the landscape are also heavily impacted
(crop and property loss).
Residential patches increase fragmentation and edge effects, as noted above. This is arguably
their most deleterious role. In addition, they also adversely affect water quality and quantity,
alter disturbance patterns, and expedite the introduction of invasive and exotic species. This
occurs because ornamental trees and shrubs are regularly non-native species and can import
exotic pests. Priority habitats and wetlands are keystone patches because they provide critical
habitat to a wide variety of species, many of conservation concern, and yet occupy a relatively
small percentage of area. Fragmentation of the project area through development and
human-constructed corridors can adversely affect these patches because it can successfully
isolate populations of plants and animals leading to possible local extirpation. Both the priority
habitats and wetlands patches are relatively dispersed across the project area. Fragstats analysis
confirms this with a low mean proximity index (MPI), seven and eight times less than MPI for
agriculture and residential patches, respectively. MPI measures the degree of isolation and
fragmentation of a given patch type; it is a relative index, with no units, higher numbers indicate
less isolation and fragmentation (McGarigal and Marks 1995). Some of the priority habitats and
all of the wetlands are legally protected to some degree. However, 378 ha of priority habitats are
not within state protected open space limits.
Regional Context.--If we expand the extent of our investigation, the Mt. Toby project area
takes on a new dimension, that of a keystone ecosystem. We have created two additional maps
illustrating the relative importance of Mt Toby as a function of the scale of investigation Figs.
19-20). The maps were produced from a model used by Lanza (1997) for the United States Fish
and Wildlife Service. She evaluated the status of 89 neotropical migratory forest bird species to
determine which were most in need of conservation. Twenty-five of those species were classified
as high priority, and habitat requirements for these species were identified. Overlaying the
habitat models for the 25 highest-ranking species on the Connecticut River Watershed identified
priority areas for neotropical forest migratory birds throughout the watershed (Lanza 1997). We
can use this information as an indication of habitat suitability and degree of fragmentation.
We created two map extents from Lanza's work, one showing the entire Connecticut River
Watershed and the other showing a smaller section, of which Mt. Toby is the focus. When the
Mt. Toby project area is considered in the context of the Connecticut River watershed, it blends
into the forest matrix, rendering it relatively insignificant. However, when evaluating Mt. Toby
within the context of the immediate surrounding landscape, the project area becomes a patch of
relatively unfragmented and, therefore, high-priority habitat for neotropical migratory bird
conservation. At this scale, the project area is surrounded by developed land, unsuitable for
neotropical migratory bird breeding. The Mt. Toby project area can be considered a keystone
ecosystem because it provides important wildlife habitat as well as commodity and
non-commodity human use within the surrounding regional landscape context. It also influences
water quality and quantity, and, in some ways, could be considered a priority habitat (keeping
with our keystone patches noted above).
Species
Hundreds of plant and animal species inhabit the Mt. Toby project area. It is not practical to
consider the habitat needs of all these species, especially since most of the species that
undoubtedly occupy this landscape (e.g., invertebrates, fungi, lichens, etc.) are undocumented.
Instead, we identified "focal species" for plants and vertebrates (Tables 3-6). Special
consideration should be given to all of these species before and after implementation of the plan.
The concern and special interest for these species is important because as focal species these
include important game species, pest species, threatened and endangered species, as well
indicator, keystone and flagship species.
To illustrate, amphibians are an important and dynamic part of biodiversity in wetland
ecology. Amphibians are also among the best indicators of environmental quality, since they are
very sensitive to pollution and habitat changes. Declines are due to many factors, which include
loss of habitat, pollution, and predation. Many of these species have low reproductive rates, are
attracted to roadsides, and are captured for pets by humans, which make them a difficult
conservation challenge.
Populations of listed plant species are threatened for two main reasons: habitat destruction
and over-collection. Many of these species are also found in rare natural communities on or near
Mt. Toby, such as dry calcareous ledges and talus slope. Populations occur infrequently, with
sparse distribution and may contain few individuals, compounding their situation (Mass Natural
Heritage). In addition, some species are threatened by excessive shading by maturing forests.
As Mt. Toby is readily accessible for recreation, large numbers of people impact the area. While
not all forest visitors actually remove plants, visitation to the area causes other species to be
trampled and their habitat to be altered. Indeed as for the other species of birds and mammals
habitat loss and degradation constitutes the major concern since it has a direct affect on the
species status that can range from game and endangered to pest species.
Table 3. Mammal focal species in the Mt. Toby Project Area. Status refers to the reason for
focal species status: G = Game; P = Pest; K = Keystone.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Status
Comments
Castor canadensis
Beaver
P/K
Keystone species because it
changes and creates habitat for
different species. At the same
time the dams causes flooding
and creates conflict with
people.
Canis latrans
Coyote
P/G
Game species and a pest
because it increasing numbers
creates conflicts with people
(e.g., pet predation).
Ursus americanus
Black bear
G
Game species due to it’s
increasing numbers and
potential hazard for people’s
safety.
Odocoileus virginianus
White-tailed deer
G/P/K
Game species, because it is
increasing in numbers, thus it
is pest due to conflict with
people (e.g., road accidents,
host lyme disease transmitter).
It is a keystone herbivore since
it strongly influences the
distribution and abundance of
other wildlife and plant
species.
Table 4. Bird focal species in the Mt. Toby Project Area. Status refers to the reason for focal
species status: SC = Special Concern; T = Threatened; E = Endangered; G = Game; P = Pest;
Z = Exotic (introduced); F = Flagship.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Status
Comments
Podilymbus podiceps
Pied-billed grebe
E
State endangered due to loss and
alteration of wetland habitats
(fresh marshes and ponds)
through draining, filling,
pollution and siltation.
Branta canadensis
Canada goose
G/P
Game bird and nuisance due to
it’s great abundance. The
migratory trend is changing
from common migrants to
residents.
Anas platyrhynchos
Mallard
G
Game bird since it is the most
common and widely distributed
duck in North America. It is
both an abundant resident and
migrant.
Aix sponsa
Wood duck
G
Game bird since it is a quite
abundant species, which the
current population has been
increasing due to maturing trees
with cavities and availability of
nest boxes.
Accipiter cooperii
Cooper's hawk
SC
Special concern: rare and local
breeder (winter resident) that is
declining since 1800s due to
persecution by farmers because
they prey on chickens.
Haliaeetus
leucocephalus
Bald eagle
F/T/E Flagship: Federally threatened/
State endangered caused by
pesticide poisoning, extirpated
since the 1950s. Introduced
through hacking program at
Quabbin Reservoir from 1982-
1986, since then they are winter
resident.
Bonasa umbellus
Ruffed grouse
G
Game Bird that is a fairly
common.
Phasianus colchicus
Ring-necked pheasant
Z/G
Game Bird that successfully
introduced from China in 1881.
It is quite common and
populations are regularly
restocked for hunting in the fall.
Meleagris gallopavo
Wild Turkey
G
Game Bird that is a common
resident which population has
gone through up and down but
since the introduction of wild
trapped birds the population has
remained robust and is currently
expanding it range.
Asio flammeus
Short-eared owl
E
State endangered due to
dramatic declines since 1030s
caused by loss of habitat
(marshes and grasslands).
Parula americana
Northern parula
E
State threatened due to decline
of
Usnea
, a lichen sensitive to
air pollution and used as nesting
material.
Table 5. Amphibian and Reptile Focal Species in the Local Mount Toby Project Area
.
Status
refers to the reason for focal species status: SC = Special Concern; T = Threatened; E =
Endangered; I = Indicator.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Status
Comments
Ambystoma
jeffersonianum
Jefferson salamander
SC/I
Declining due to acid
precipitation and disturbed
habitat.
Ambystoma laterale
Blue Spotted salamander
SC/I
Declining due to same reasons
noted above. A limiting factor
is that since they are female
hybrids they need males from
other species to reproduce.
Ambystoma maculatum
Spotted salamander
SC/I
Population declining due to
acid precipitation.
Ambystoma opacum
Marbled salamander
T/I
State threatened due to habitat
loss disturbance: vernal pools,
which are often under the
threat of development.
Furthermore, the buffer zone
around the pools is inadequate
and does not protect the
uplands where they over-
winter. In addition they are
under predation pressure by
other animals.
Hemidactylium
scutatum
Four-toed salamander
SC/I
Declining due to habitat
disturbance.
Gyrinophilus
porphyriticus
Northern spring
salamander
SC/I
Declining due to habitat
disturbance.
Scaphiopus halbrookii
Eastern spadefoot toad
T/I
State threatened due to habitat
disturbance. In addition, low
are reported due to their
secretive and nocturnal habits.
Clemmys guttata
Spotted turtle
SC/I
Declining due to habitat
degradation, since they only
inhabit unpolluted waters.
Clemmys insculpta
Wood turtle
SC/I
Declining due to habitat loss.
Like the above species they are
not tolerant of pollution.
Agkistrodon contortrix
Northern copperhead
E
State endangered due to human
disturbance – eradication. A
major limiting factor is their
behavior of reusing den sites
each year.
Crotalus horridus
Timber rattlesnake
E
State endangered due to human
disturbance.
Table 6. Plants Focal Species in the Local Mount Toby Project Area. Status refers to the reason
for focal species status: SC = Special Concern; T = Threatened; E = Endangered; R = Rare.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Status
Comments
Acer nigrum
Black maple
SC
Rich, moist sites with shade or
filtered light
Adlumia fungosa
Climbing fumitory
T
Wet or recently burned woods,
rocky wooded slopes
Apectrum hyemale
Putty-root
E
Rich deciduous woods
Arabis verticillata
Green rock-cress
T
Ledges in rocky woods and
hills, mesic-dry soil
Asclelpias verticillata
Linear-leaved milkweed
T
Dry, open situation with
exposure
Asplenium ruta-
muraria
Wall-rue spleenwort
R
Dry ledges of dolomitic
limestone and conglomerate
Callitriche terrestris
Terrestrial starwort
SC
Paths, moist ground
Clematis verticillaris
Purple clematis
SC
Rocky woods, ledges,
calcareous soils
Corallorhiza
odontorhiza
Autumn coralroot
SC
Light soil or rich humus
Cryptogramma stelleri
Fragile rock-brake
T
Shaded limestone ledges
Cynoglossum boreale
Northern wild comfrey
SC
Rich open woods
Cypripedium arietinum
Ram's head lady's-
slipper
E
Shady hillsides, rich swampy
woods
Cypripedium reginae
Showy lady's-slipper
SC
Swamps, bogs, usually
calcareous
Diplazium
pycnocarpon
Narrow leaved-
spleenwort
R
Rich, shady mesic woods, talus
slopes
Drypteris goldiana
Goldie's fern
E
Rich, often calcareous woods,
rocky hillsides
Lycopodium selago
Fir clubmoss
SC
Mountain ledges
Panax quinquefolius
Ginseng
SC
Rich, shady mesic woods and
talus slopes
Pellaea atropurpurea
Purple cliff-brake
E
Exposed to shaded calcareous
rocks, cliffs and ledges
Platanthera dilatata
Leafy white orchid
T
Springy woods, bogs
Poa languida
Drooping speargrass
E
Dry or rocky woods
Ophioglossum
vulgatum
Adder's tongue fern
T
Boggy meadows, acidic fens,
marsh boarders
Scleria triglomerata
Tall nut-sedge
E
Banks, meadows
Sphenoptiolis nitida
Shining wedgegrass
T
Dry or moist, rocky woods or
hillsides
Trichomanes species 1
Filmy fern
SC
Not available
The Social and Economic Setting
Demographics
The Mt. Toby project area, by virtue of its location within three towns and one county, is
subject to various dynamics of development and urban sprawl, which is fueled by population
growth, a trend consistent across the state. The population increase in the project area, however,
is not as great as in Massachusetts. In 2000, the population of Sunderland was 3,516, with a
density of 244 people per every square mile; the population of Montague was 8,334, with 274
people per square mile, while that of Leverett was 1,851 with 81 people per square mile.
Based on the 2000 census, the population of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is
6,349,097, which is a 5.5% increase from the 1990 population of 6,016,425. Franklin County,
which contains the Mt. Toby project area and includes the towns of Leverett, Montague, and
Sunderland, experienced a population increase of 2.06% between 1990 (70,092) and 1999
(71,535). In 1990, 20% of the individuals were <13 years old, 10% were 14-21 years, and 70%
were >22 years old. The largest age group in the county was between the ages of 35 and 39. In
1990, Franklin County supported 18,351 families and 27,640 households. Of the 2,754 vacant
housing units, 1,247 are used occasionally, seasonally, or for recreational purposes. In 2000,
Franklin County supported a predominantly white population (95% ); African Americans
comprised 0.9%; American Indians comprised 0.3%; ethnic Asians comprised 0.7%; and people
of mixed race comprised the remaining 1.6%.
Since the Mt. Toby project area is associated with and affected by the towns within which it
is located, a local scale examination of population trends is equally important. Sunderland, which
includes the majority of the project area, experienced a 3.5% increase in population between
1990-1999. Leverett contains only a small portion of the project area, but experienced a similar
population growth (3.2%) during the same period. Conversely, Montague, the third town within
the project area, experienced a minor decline (0.3%).
Both Franklin County and the Mt. Toby project area are classified as rural areas within
Massachusetts. However, the project area contains a pronounced dichotomy between
agricultural/forested land uses and residential/business land uses. Sunderland, which contains the
majority of the project area, contains four different zones for development. These include
commercial, industrial, rural-residence, and village residence. Agricultural and forested lands are
included in the zone for rural residence (MDHCD). Urban sprawl has been increasing across the
state due to the large number of people moving out of metropolitan cities and setting up
residence in rural communities (Platt 1996). This migration could potentially have negative
effects in the Mt. Toby project area due to the rural appeal of the landscape. The current
economic situations of Greenfield, north of the project area and Springfield, south of the project
area have kept urban sprawl somewhat confined. An economic boom in those cities would likely
increase sprawl in the project area. Increase in development within Sunderland has already lead
to significant fragmentation of the landscape, most specifically along the corridor between the
Mt. Toby forest matrix and the Connecticut River (W. Sillin, pers. comm.).
Sunderland, Leverett, and Montague have adopted growth management mechanisms to
accommodate the steady population growth and increase in residential development. Each town
however, has developed different regulations specific for the needs of the particular town (Table
7). As a result, the Mt. Toby project area could experience an increase in development within
one town, while under go conservation and protection from development in an adjoining town.
Since it encompasses the majority of the project area, Sunderland is therefore a more significant
town to consider when discussing growth management plans.
Table 7. Growth management plans of the towns surrounding the Mt. Toby project area
(MDHCD 2001).
Leverett
Montague
Sunderland
Comprehensive Plan
yes
no
no
Rent Control
no
no
no
Condominium Control
no
no
no
Groundwater Protection
yes
yes
yes
Subdivision Control
Laws
yes
yes
yes
Site Plan Approval
Required
yes
yes
no
Ceiling # of new house
permits/year
yes
no
no
Development Rate Limit
no
no
yes
Zoning Districts
no
no
yes
In addition, it is important to note that urban sprawl could create conflicts between town
residents. The neighboring town of Hadley recently experienced this conflict regarding proposed
development on a mountainside within the Mt. Holyoke range. A large conflict ensued between
Hadley town residents and the development company, raising many questions regarding private
property rights, limitations and possibilities for town control, and the value residents derive from
the mountain range. Although the final decision was ruled in favor of town residents, the
proposal for development represents a growing trend of rural areas to be targeted for
development even if the only sites left open for development are on a steep mountain side.
Although it has been noted that population demographics do not play a direct role in
influencing urban sprawl, the growth in population and documentation of migration from cities,
indicates that the Mt. Toby project area may in a relatively short time period be dramatically
influenced by residential and/or industrial development. If population numbers continue to
increase and affect urban sprawl, the rural areas of the project area will eventually be acquired
for development unless provisions are in place to prevent such growth. It would be reasonable to
conclude that the Mt. Toby project area, and Sunderland in particular, will experience the
opportunity for a dramatic shift in land use practices over the next several years.
Economics
The Mount Toby project area has experienced an increasing trend of business and
development over the past ten years. The town of Sunderland's annual operating budget has been
steadily growing over the years. Fiscal year 1998 growth was approximately $155, 000, FY 1999
was $236, 000, FY 2000 was over $380, 000. A large portion of this growth was attributed to the
increasing cost of education provided by the regional schools, and this will be examined further
below.
Due to the presence of a significant village business center, major farmlands, and main
transportation routes (Rt. 116 and Rt. 47), Sunderland comprises the majority of the
business-driven economy in the project area. Although Sunderland is quite small in terms of its
human population, it has a diverse representation of businesses and industries, including
construction, consulting services, manufacturing, farming, logging, and mining. Sunderland is
the home to All States Asphalt Inc., In Focus [business] consulting, Mass-Save Inc [energy
consultants], Pres Speakers, Phoenix Instruments Inc., Hillside Plastics, Warner Brothers [sand
and gravel], Mohawk Trout Hatchery, and Patterson Farm. These business interests tap into
many resources within the Mount Toby area. Farming, forestry, and mining directly alter
resources from the ecosystem, disrupting the natural mosaic of ecological communities and the
connectivity among them. Agricultural runoff, compacted soils, water diversion, and habitat
fragmentation are common effects of these land uses that do not necessarily have immediate
consequences, but that will alter the ecosystem over time. The presence of business and industry
also attracts people to the Mount Toby area, increasing the road traffic, which in turn increases
the need for improved roads and parking lots. Although these businesses and industries generate
profit, money must be spent on infrastructure to keep these establishments viable. According to
the Massachusetts Department of Revenue (2000), Sunderland spent $191,827 on public
highway maintenance in fiscal year 1999. Although this figure is lower than that of both Leverett
and Montague, the majority of roads in the Mount Toby project area lie in Sunderland.
The structure of Sunderland's economy can be drawn from the town's land use patterns.
Agriculture uses comprise 28.5% of the land while industrial, commercial, and recreational uses
comprise only 0.6% of the land (MDHCD 2001). The residential opportunities within the three
towns are increasing due to sprawl from crowded urban centers such as Springfield, Greenfield,
and Amherst. This increases the need for convenient stores, gas stations, restaurants, parking
lots, and driveways, thereby benefitting the local economy but potentially adversely affected the
health and integrity of the ecosystem.
The total annual payroll and average annual wages in Leverett, Montague, and Sunderland
have all experienced a net increase over the past ten years (DET 2000). The unemployment rates
in all three towns have severely decreased as well (Sunderland: –4.6%; Montague: –5.3%;
Leverett: –3.2%; DET 2000). These statistics indicate that there is in fact a demand for the goods
and services these towns provide, resulting in the continuing use of the Mount Toby project area
and its resources. With respect to developing an ecosystem management plan, the towns
therefore may be hesitant to stop the expansion of the services and industries that are making
them prosperous.
One common assumption made by towns comprising the Mt. Toby project area is that
residential development increases the local tax base and that resource conservation efforts are
too costly at the local level. Therefore, a common argument is that it is best to convert natural
lands (farmland, and conservation areas) to its ‘highest and best use', which is generally assumed
to be development. However, a recent economic analysis demonstrated that residential
development is in fact much more costly to the municipality (in financial terms) than
maintaining land in agriculture or protected forestland. In addition, agriculture contributes
significantly to the regional economy. In 1986, Massachusetts's farmers employed 15,000 people
and earned more than $ 425 million In addition to their cost effectiveness, open space and
farmland add to the unique rural character of the Mt. Toby landscape. These aesthetic features
alone provide a major source of revenue to the region by attracting tourism. In this context,
farmland and open space protection should be viewed as an investment in rural infrastructure
that helps to sustain local economies.
While economic information pertaining to the Mount Toby ecosystem is scarce, a great deal
of the financial records relate to annual expenditure by various town authorities. A direct
cost-benefit analysis between development and conservation as a land use should be encouraged.
Towns need to evaluate how much the Mount Toby area contributes to their total economies.
Beyond the property tax contributions, what other economic benefits and amenities does Mount
Toby provide? By recognizing Mount Toby as both a conservation area and ‘local industry',
communities in the surrounding towns have begun to realize the many potential economic
benefits of protecting it.
Cultural & Historic Resources
The towns of Sunderland, Leverett and Montague abound with historic and cultural sites
indicative of the economic, civic, and private trends of the communities. These sites persist
because they have come to define the character of the region so desired by the townspeople. For
this reason the Mt. Toby project area retains a rural quality remindful of historic New England
landscapes. For example, the area has within its bounds historic farms, homesteads, mills,
churches, cemeteries, homes, and Native American sites (Sunderland Outdoors 1998).
Typically, areas within 1000 feet of perennial water and without steep slopes were Native
American settlements (Mullholland 2001). Native American sites, which can be found at the
base of Mt. Toby are key features of the archeological landscape.
Sunderland.--Native Americans traveled extensively along a north-south trail, which
followed the contours of the western base of Mt. Toby, continuing along the river terrace at
Silver Lane. Containers and artifacts have been found in areas where Native Americans quarried
gravel, sand, and clay. Immediately south of Whitmore Pond, one undated Native American site
was found. Tappings of old maple trees are evidenced around Mt. Toby's base (Gibavic 2001).
Farming has been and continues to be an important component of Sunderland's economy even in
the face of residential development. Early in the town's settlement, farming became the principal
industry. Nevertheless, other industries prospered throughout Sunderland's history, such as
tobacco shops, farm machinery suppliers, sawmills, retail stores, gravel operations, blacksmiths,
and maple syrup and sugar production (Sunderland Outdoors 1998). Some of the oldest mills in
the project area were found in North Sunderland. A grist mill, a sawmill, and a fulling mill were
established between 1726 and 1774 (ACEC 1991). Three inns were located at the perimeter of
the project area and on the Leverett border. One bank, one meeting house, and three
schoolhouses are noted on the 1830 maps. Examples of historical legacies in the project area are
the Gunn Sugarhouse off of Route 47, the Robert Frost trail which follows portions of historic
paths, and the North Sunderland cemetery (est. 1839) located a few miles north of the center of
town on Route 47. Table 8 contains the locations, years of completion and architectural styles
(when relevant) of sites included in the Sunderland Cultural Resource Inventory; many are
recommendations to the National Register.
Leverett.--R. L. Goss, from Montague City, built a 2-mile carriage road from Leverett to the
top of Mt. Toby in 1873. He later built a house and a 70-ft tower at the summit; in 1875 he built
picnic grounds and a depot. The location quickly became a public resort. Within a decade, J. L.
Graves built a hotel at the top. In 1882 these structures were destroyed by fire (Historical
Records 2001). There are numerous historical houses in Leverett (1830 Maps). Additional sites
of historic interest within the Leverett section include a cemetery that resides at the base of Mt.
Toby across from the intersection of Route 63 and Montague Road; the Guru Ram Das Ashram,
a Buddhist center located adjacent to the cemetery; and the Mount Toby Sugarhouse on Route
63. Beginning in 1866, a railroad ran from Brattleboro, Vermont to New London, Connecticut
passing through Long Plain valley in Leverett (ACEC 1991). This increased the ease of travel
and transport of goods and services.
Montague.–The Montague portion of the project area was historically agriculture and forest
lands. While much of this historic landscape is maintained, contemporary residential
development is the predominant land use. Within the project bounds there are still productive
farmlands; native planting fields were established on the floodplains at the mouth of Cranberry
Brook. A cemetery is located at the base of East Taylor Hill Road, where the original settlers are
buried.
Table 8. Sunderland Historic and Cultural Sites within the Mt. Toby Project Area.
ADDRESS
HISTORIC NAME
STYLE
DATE
Amherst Road
10 Amherst Road
L&M Warner Grain Store
utilitarian
1917
18 Amherst Road
Warner-Miller-Skibiski
Building
utilitarian
1917
716 Amherst Road
Ebenezer Dickinson House
Greek Revival
c. 1842
Falls Road
55 Falls Road
Bowman/Smith House
Federal/Greek
Revival
c.1832
Falls Road
bridge & canal
masonry
c.1830
296 Falls Road
Elkanah Baker House
Federal
c.1830
299 Falls Road
Thomas E. Munsell House
Federal
c.1826
300 Falls Road
N. Sunderland Baptist
Church
a-stylistic
1903
312 Falls Road
Horace Dexter House
Federal
c.1827
324 Falls Road
Daniel Whitmore House
Greek Revival
c.1830
336 Falls Road
Whipple Inn/Whitmore
House
Federal
1832
Falls Road
Whitmore’s Mills canal
masonry
c.1774
Main Street
243 North Main Street
Henry O. Williams House
Greek Revival
c.1853
225 North Main Street
Williams Farm
Neo-colonial
1919
207 North Main Street
S. Billings/N. Graves House
Georgian
c.1718
199 North Main Street
Israel Cooley House
Federal
1800-1833
187 North Main Street
Samuel Graves, Sr. House
Federal
1804
171 North Main Street
Eleazor Warner, Jr. House
Greek Revival
c.1825
168 North Main Street
Isaac Graves House
Georgian
c.1730
167 North Main Street
Eleazor Warner House
Georgian/Federal
1750-1800
157 North Main Street
Gideon Warner House
Federal
c.1780
154 North Main Street
George F. Abby House
Italianate
c.1875
153 North Main Street
Graham/Beaman House
Federal
1776
143 North Main Street
David Graves House
Georgian
1748-80
142 North Main Street
Old Buttonball Tree
Sycamore Tree
200-400 y.o.
140 North Main Street
Alvin Johnson House
French Second
Empire
c.1865
133 North Main Street
Rev. James Taylor House
Federal
c.1807
127 North Main Street
Kenneth Williams House
Craftsman
Bungalow
c.1920
120 North Main Street
Henry F. Sanderson House
Gothic Revival
c.1843
121 North Main Street
Ashley Graves House
Greek Revival
c.1830
112 North Main Street
Town Hall
Italianate
1867
110 North Main Street
Warner’s Tobacco Shop
utilitarian
1923
109 North Main Street
Graves Memorial Library
Tudor Revival
1900
108 North Main Street
Sunderland Bank
Classical Revival
1825
104 North Main Street
Town House
Greek Revival
c.1820
Montague Road
358 Montague Road
Nye Glazier Morse House
Greek Revival
c.1830
305/307 Montague
Road
John H. Morse House
Greek Revival
c.1838
207 Montague Road
Gunn Family Farm
269 Montague Road
Bixby Farm
Greek Revival
c.1864
194 Montague Road
Elijah Hubbard House
Federal
1818
North Silver Lane
111 North Silver Lane
Zigmund Karpinski House
Neo-colonial
c.1917
134 North Silver Lane
Thomas Buckley House
Queen Anne
c.1890
146 North Silver Lane
William Bisikerskas House
a-stylistic
c.1914
154 North Silver Lane
John Chestnut House
Neo-colonial
Bungalow
c.1920
Paddy Farms Road
Paddy Farms Road
Paddy Farms Site
N/A
c.1842
Russell Street
18 Russell Street
Angelo Correale House
Bungalow
1926
24 Russell Street
Appleton Eugene Rowe
House
Gothic Revival
c.1835
66 Russell Street
Teckla and Godfrey Snicker
House
Colonial Revival
c.1930
208 Russell Street
Neo-colonial
c.1950
296 Russell Street
Frederick E. Walsh House
Colonial Revival
1897
311Russell Street
Cephas Graves House
Greek Revival
c.1825
334 Russell Street
Norman Clark House
Gothic Revival
c.1850
350 Russell Street
Emmons Russell Farm
Colonial Revival
1830&1931
379 Russell Street
a-stylistic
c.1905
389 Russell Street
Frank Grybko House
Colonial Revival
1919
403 Russell Street
Burek House
Colonial Revival
c.1919
414 Russell Street
John Goscienski House
Queen Anne
1916
416 Russell Street
Alexander Demianczik
House
a-stylistic
c.1918
School Street
6 School Street
Frederick E. Walsh House
Colonial Revival
1921
9 School Street
W.D. Chandler House
Gothic Revival
c.1865
11 School Street
A.C. Defano House
Greek Revival
c.1855
12 School Street
Center School
Federal Revival
1922
15 School Street
Queen Anne
c.1900
23 School Street
Lawer Shop
utilitarian
c.1880
28 School Street
Mason Armstrong House
Greek Revival
c.1855
32 School Street
Skibiski Vegetable
Storehouse
utilitarian
c.1920
33 School Street
Queen Anne
c.1900
38 School Street
Toll House
Federal
1812
Whitmore Cross Road
176 Whitmore Cross
Rd
Wheelwright Shop
Greek Revival
C.1830
KEY ISSUES AND CONCERNS
The interdisciplinary analysis of the Mt. Toby project area completed as part of this
ecosystem management planning effort, in combination with stakeholder concerns documented
during the Sunderland open space planning effort and the UMass-led landowner and on-site
recreational user surveys, revealed several key issues and concerns. These key issues and
concerns represent unresolved conflicts of particular significance to the stakeholders or that
threaten the likelihood of achieving the overarching goal of ecosystem sustainability. Although
there are many ways to incorporate key issues and concerns into the planning process, we
adopted these as a way of checking our goals and objectives for completeness. That is, we
adopted goals and objectives to insure that all of the key issues and concerns were dealt with.
Note, the following key issues and concerns are not listed in any particular order.
•
Habitat fragmentation
– Along with habitat loss, habitat fragmentation is a leading cause of
decline in populations of certain animal species that require large tracts of unbroken habitat.
The Mt. Toby project area contains a relatively unfragmented landscape, which provides
suitable habitat for species that require it.
•
Adverse ecological impacts of recreation
– Certain recreational activities, especially
motorized forms, undermine fragile communities and disrupt wildlife activities. People enjoy
the outdoors, but we must strike a balance between human use and ecological integrity.
•
Recreational use conflicts
– Motorized and non-motorized recreational activities are
sometimes at odds, in the sense that motorized activities can disrupt non-motorized ones.
Recreational users must interact amicably to enhance each group's enjoyment of the
landscape.
•
Residential sprawl
-- Residential development frequently occurs in an un-planned and
unwise manner. Specifically, houses are built over a large area, relatively spread out from
one another. Such practices usurp and fragment habitat. In some areas, development is
occurring at a faster pace than population increase.
•
Rare communities
-- Identified as such, rare communities support locally or regionally scarce
plants and animals. To preserve biodiversity, rare communities must also be preserved.
•
Effects of development
-- In addition to destroying habitat, development increases other
strains on the environment like waste removal, water pollution, and air pollution.
•
Patchiness of land ownership
-- With a diversity of landowners, each owning a relatively
small parcel of land, cooperative management becomes more difficult, as each landowner
attempts to satisfy their wants before community goals.
•
Multi-town coordination
-- The Mt. Toby project area encompasses parts of three towns,
each town has different rules for zoning, conservation, water rights, development, and the
like. Working with the towns to achieve a common vision for the project area will help
ensure community cooperation in implementing a management plan.
•
Farmland protection
-- Surveys have indicated the desire to protect farmland in the project
area. Residents appreciate the aesthetic appeal of farmland and consume local produce.
Farmland is also valuable open space, which does not burden towns financially as much as
residential development. Farmland also provides habitat diversity.
•
Rural character
-- Surveys have indicated the desire to preserve the rural character of the
towns found in the project area. Residents like the "small-town" feeling, and appear willing
to work to preserve this aura.
•
Invasive species
-- Both plant and animal invasives have wreaked havoc with native
communities. Invasives reduce biodiversity and can extirpate native species from an area.
•
Extirpated species
-- Bringing back species once present but currently absent from the
project area enhances biodiversity and may return continuity to unregulated ecosystem
processes and populations (e.g., wolves predating deer).
•
Water quality
-- Clean water is essential for any community, water purification is costly, and
prevention is a more economically viable solution. The management plan needs to address
ways to prevent water pollution where possible.
•
Education
-- In many cases, landowners and users of the project area are unaware of the
ecological structures and processes occurring on their land and in the project area. Informing
users and landowners about ecological consequences may facilitate cooperation in
implementing the management plan.
•
Economic growth
-- Without economic growth, many people would argue that towns are not
likely to pursue ecological issues, simply because they do not have funds sufficient to
achieve anything.
•
Commercial resource extraction
-- Primarily timber harvest, but to a lesser extent mining,
resource extraction improves the local economy. If conducted properly, resource extraction
does not irreparably alter the ecosystem.
•
Non-point source (NPS) pollution
-- Given the proximity of the project area to the
Connecticut River, NPS pollution from above- and below-ground streams can adversely
impact the project area and downstream communities. In addition, NPS airborne pollution
can adversely impact the forest matrix of the project area.
•
Road systems
-- Roads are a fragmenting element of any ecosystem. They provide paths for
invasive species, they create edge habitat (which can adversely impact forest interior
species), and they exacerbate erosion and stream sedimentation.
•
Biodiversity conservation
-- It is generally acknowledged that more diverse ecosystems are
more stable, more resistant to disturbance and more resilient after disturbance.
•
Overabundance of wildlife and associated human conflicts
-- As humans encroach on more
habitat, and as animals adapt to the human presence, more conflicts have arisen (e.g.,
deer/car accidents, raccoons and possums eating refuse).
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