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Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to the economical solution of practical technical problems. Usually their work is the link between a scientific discovery and its commercial application. Engineers design machinery, products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They design industrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing defense-related goods and weapons systems for the Armed Forces. They design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop systems for control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes.Engineers consider many factors in developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, they determine precisely what function it needs to perform; design and test components; fit them together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the design's overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as different as chemicals, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and toys.
In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. They supervise production in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering management or in sales, where an engineering background enables them to discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installation or use. (See the statements on engineering, science, and data processing managers and manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Most engineers specialize; more than 25 major specialties are recognized by professional societies,and within the major branches are numerous subdivisions. Structural, environmental, and transportation engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems.
This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate sections on 10 engineering branches: Aerospace; chemical; civil; electrical and electronics; industrial; mechanical; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Branches of engineering not covered in detail here, but in which there are established college programs include: Architectural engineering-the design of a building's internal support structure; biomedical engineering-the application of engineering to medical and physiological problems; environmental engineering-a growing discipline involved with identifying, solving, and alleviating environmental problems; and marine engineering-the design and installation of ship machinery and propulsion systems.
Engineers in each branch have knowledge and training that can be applied to many fields. Electrical and electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, and power distribution fields. Because there are many separate problems to solve in a large engineering project, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in other scientific, engineering, and business occupations.
Engineers often use computers to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates. Many engineers also use computer-aided design systems to produce and analyze designs. They spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engineers, as complex projects often require an nterdisciplinary team of engineers. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects.
Many engineers work in laboratories, industrial plants, or at construction sites, where they inspect, supervise, or solve onsite problems. Others work in offices almost all of the time. Engineers in branches such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites.Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times, deadlines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a job. When this happens, engineers may work long hours and experience considerable stress.
In 1994, engineers held 1,327,000 jobs. Chart 1 shows the employment of the engineering disciplines covered in this statement. Forty-seven percent of all engineering jobs were located in manufacturing industries-mostly in electrical and electronic equipment, industrial machinery, scientific instruments, aircraft and parts, motor vehicles, chemicals, guided missiles and space vehicles, fabricated metal products, and primary metals industries. In 1994, 684,000 jobs were in nonmanufacturing ndustries, primarily in engineering and architectural services, research and testing services, and business services, where firms designed construction projects or did other engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy. Engineers also worked in the communications, utilities, and construction industries.
Federal, State, and local governments employed about 181,000 engineers. Over half of these were in the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Some engineers are self-employed consultants.
Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in statements later in this chapter.
A bachelor's degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is usually required for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a physical science or mathematics may occasionally qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in engineering specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in another. This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and specialties where engineers are in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects, or to ones that match their interests more closely.In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges offer degrees in engineering technology, which are offered as either 2- or 4-year programs. These programs prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical, scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of 4-year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor's degree in engineering. Some employers regard them as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer.
Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology, broaden their education, and enhance promotion opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become attorneys. Many high-level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers.
About 340 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in engineering, and nearly 300 colleges offer a bachelor's degree in engineering technology, although not all are accredited programs. Although most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in industry, while others are more theoretical and are better for students preparing to take graduate work. Therefore, students should investigate curricula and check accreditations carefully before selecting a college. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include courses in advanced high school mathematics and the physical sciences.
Bachelor's degree programs in engineering are typically designed to last 4 years, but many students find that it takes between 4 and 5 years to complete their studies. In a typical 4-year college curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences (mathematics, physics, and chemistry), introductory engineering, and the humanities, social sciences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one branch. For example, the last 2 years of an aerospace program might include courses such as fluid mechanics, heat transfer, applied aerodynamics, analytical mechanics, flight vehicle design, trajectory dynamics, and aerospace propulsion systems. Some programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job.
A few engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering education and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few engineering schools have arrangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying preengineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor's degree from each. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master's degree programs.
Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work, permitting students to gain valuable experience and finance part of their education.
All 50 States and the District of Columbia require registration for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1994, between 250,000 and 300,000 engineers were registered. Registration generally requires a degree from an engineering program accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State examination. Some States will not register people with degrees in engineering technology. Engineers may be registered in several states.
Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger companies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more difficult tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical specialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial, management support, or sales jobs. (See the statements under executive, administrative, and managerial occupations; under sales occupations; and on computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should be creative, analytical, and detail-oriented. In addition, engineers should be able to communicate well-both orally and in writing.
Employment opportunities in engineering are expected to be good through the year 2005 because employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations while the number of degrees granted in engineering is expected to remain near present levels through the year 2005.Many of the jobs in engineering are related to national defense. Because defense expenditures have declined, employment growth and job outlook for engineers may not be as strong as in times when defense expenditures were increasing. However, graduating engineers will continue to be in demand for jobs in engineering and other areas, possibly even at the same time other engineers, especially defense industry engineers, are being laid off.
Employers will rely on engineers to further increase productivity as they increase investment in plant and equipment to expand output of goods and services. In addition, competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently. Finally, more engineers will be needed to improve deteriorating roads, bridges, water and pollution control systems, and other public facilities.
Freshman engineering enrollments began declining in 1983, and the number of bachelor's degrees in engineering began declining in 1987, as shown in chart 2. Although it is difficult to project engineering enrollments, this decline may continue through the late 1990s because the total college-age population is projected to decline. Furthermore, the proportion of students interested in engineering careers has declined as prospects for college graduates in other fields have improved and interest in other programs has increased. Also, engineering schools have restricted enrollments, especially in defense-related fields such as aerospace engineering, to accommodate the reduced opportunities in defense-related industries.
Only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profession each year. Despite this, over 70 percent of all job openings will arise from replacement needs. A greater proportion of replacement openings is created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional specialty occupations than by those who leave the labor force.
Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other workers. Many engineers work on long-term research and development projects or in other activities which may continue even during recessions. In industries such as electronics and aerospace, however, large government cutbacks in defense or research and development have resulted in significant layoffs for engineers.
New computer-aided design systems have improved the design process, enabling engineers to produce or modify designs much more rapidly. Engineers now produce and analyze many more design variations before selecting a final one. However, this technology is not expected to limit employment opportunities.
It is important for engineers to continue their education throughout their careers because much of their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. The pace of technological change varies by engineering specialty and industry. Engineers in high-technology areas such as advanced electronics may find that technical knowledge can become obsolete rapidly. Even those who continue their education are vulnerable if the particular technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete. Engineers who have not kept current in their field may find themselves passed over for promotions and are vulnerable should layoffs occur. On the other hand, it is often these high-technology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineering specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obsolescence.
Starting salaries for engineers with the bachelor's degree are significantly higher than starting salaries of bachelor's degree graduates in other fields. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, engineering graduates with a bachelor's degree averaged about $34,100 a year in private industry in 1994; those with a master's degree and no experience, $40,200 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $55,300. Starting salaries for those with the bachelor's degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation.Aerospace $30,860 Chemical 39,204 Civil 29,809 Electrical 34,840 Industrial 33,267 Mechanical 35,051 Metallurgical 33,429 Mining 32,638 Nuclear 33,603 Petroleum 38,286A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported that beginning engineers had median annual earnings of about $33,900 in 1993, with the middle half earning between about $30,900 and $36,900 a year. Experienced midlevel engineers with no supervisory responsibilities had median annual earnings of about $54,400, with the middle half earning between about $49,800 and $59,600 a year. Median annual earnings for engineers at senior managerial levels were about $90,000. Median annual earnings for these and other levels of engineers are shown in the following tabulation.
Engineer I $33,900 Engineer II 38,500 Engineer III 44,800 Engineer IV 54,400 Engineer V 65,400 Engineer VI 78,100 Engineer VII 90,000 Engineer VIII 105,700Median annual salaries for all engineers was about $46,600 in 1994. Those with a bachelor's degree had median earnings of $47,100; master's degree holders, $53,200; and PhDs, $62,300. Median salaries for some engineering specialties were:
Aerospace $50,200 Chemical 53,100 Civil 44,700 Electrical 48,000 Industrial 40,900 Mechanical 46,400 Engineers, nec 45,400The average annual salary for engineers in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $56,370 in 1994.
Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical principles include physical scientists, life scientists, computer scientists, mathematicians, engineering and science technicians, and architects.
High school students interested in obtaining general information on a variety of engineering disciplines should contact the Junior Engineering Technical Society by sending a self-addressed business-size envelope with 6 first-class stamps affixed to:
JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314.Non-high school students and those wanting more detailed information should contact societies representing the individual branches of engineering. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch.Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering, send $3 to:
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., AIAA Student Programs, The Aerospace Center, 370 L'Enfant Promenade SW., Washington, DC 20024-2518.Chemical Engineering American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, NY 10017-2395.
American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.
Civil Engineering American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017.
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 1202, Washington, DC 20036.
Industrial Engineering Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092.
Mechanical Engineering The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle NE., Atlanta, GA 30329.
Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineering The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086-7514.
ASM International, Student Outreach Program, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002.
Mining Engineering The Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., P.O. Box 625002, Littleton, CO 80162-5002.
Nuclear Engineering American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60525.
Petroleum Engineering Society of Petroleum Engineers, 222 Palisades Creek Dr., Richardson, TX 75080.
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