—Huston Smith, Author of The World’s Religions

—Seyyed Hossein Nasr, George Washington University

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Footage and photographs taken of the Muslims in Lhasa in 1997 are richly complemented by a delightful interview with a Tibetan Muslim who describes the history and life of Islam in Tibet, the two Muslim communities living there today and the relationship between the Buddhists and the Muslims. The viewer will be intrigued by descriptions of Tibetan Muslim society and family life, the homes, food and clothing, language, education, trade and traditional herbal medicine. This video participates in the surprise to all of us that Islam has been present for nearly 1,000 years in what we have considered to have always been a monolithically Buddhist culture. This video is accessible for anyone to see, although intended for teachers concerned with geography, world religions, the interfaith dialogue and multicultural studies.

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Merton and Buddhism -Forthcoming

The differing viewpoints of Buddhism and the other world religions regarding Ultimate Reality

     Buddhism, at least in its Hînayâna form, is virtually unique amongst the religions of the world, in that it envisages “Ultimate Reality”, not as a Supreme Being (Almighty God), but as a Supreme State (Nirvâna).  Because of this seeming absence of the concept of God, at least in the manner envisaged by the Semitic religions, some have gone so far as to call Buddhism an “atheistic religion”, - a contradiction in terms - , while others have alleged that it is not a religion at all, but a “philosophy”.

     Both of these views are incorrect.  The “Supreme State” in Buddhism and the “Supreme Being” in the other religions are each expressions of the same transcendent Reality:  That which is absolute, infinite, and perfect.  Thus, the apparent difference between Buddhism and the other religions is in fact a difference of point of view or angle of vision.  The essence of the matter is that Buddhism, like the other religions, has both its origin and its goal in the Eternal, the Sovereign Good.  This is the nature of Ultimate Reality, and it is with Ultimate Reality that religion as such is concerned.

     Buddhism is neither “atheistic” (in the usual connotation of this term), nor a “philosophy” (in the sense of being man-made);  it is a revealed religion, coming from Ultimate Reality and leading to Ultimate Reality.

     There is no religion without revelation, that is to say:  without revealed truth and without revealed sacramental means of liberation, deliverance, or salvation.  These fundamentals are present in Buddhism, as in every other traditional and orthodox religion, and constitute its essence and its reason for being.

     Every religion - be it Christian, Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist, or Shamanist - takes account of the two divine aspects of Transcendence and Immanence.  These can be expressed by different pairs of terms: Height and Depth, Above and Within, Remoteness and Proximity, Transcendence and Immanence, Divine Object and Divine Subject.  One could say that religious law pertains to Transcendence, whereas the voice of conscience pertains to Immanence.  In Islam, for example, immanence is expressed by the terms qalb (“heart”), sirr (“secret”), and also in the saying “God is closer to thee than thy jugular vein.”  Ultimate Reality is both Transcendence and Immanence, and every religion, in its theology and spirituality, expounds and has recourse to these two divine aspects in its own way.

     In the history of the religions, and particularly in modern times, some heresies have had their origin in the neglect of one or other of these realities.  In general terms, one might say that “transcendentism” without “immanentism” can lead to a kind of deism, whereas “immanentism” without “transcendentism” can lead to subjectivistic illusion.  The majority of contemporary cults could be said to be “immanentist” heresies.

     The Semitic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) - except in the context of their mysticisms or spiritualities - tend to emphasize the aspect of Transcendence (the Divine Being), whereas Buddhism tends to emphasize the aspect of Immanence (the Divine State).  Nevertheless, the transcendentist - or “theistic” - perspective is also present in Buddhism, and characteristically comes to the fore in the Mahâyâna school.  In his Outlines of Mahâyâna Buddhism (chapter IX), D. T. Suzuki writes:  “God, or the religious Object of Buddhism, is generally called Dharmakâya-Buddha and occasionally Vairochana-Dharmakâya-Buddha.  Still another name for it is Amitâbha-Buddha or Amitâyur-Buddha, the last two being mostly used by the followers of the Sukhavâtî (or 'Pure Land') sect of Japan and China.”  Suzuki states further:  “The Dharmakâya assumes three essential aspects:  intelligence (praj_â), love (karunâ), and will (pranidhânabala).”

     Even in the Hînayâna school, the theistic perspective is by no means absent.  Moreover, it is an interesting and significant fact that, in several Theravâda countries -  Ceylon and Siam, amongst others - the nearness of Hinduism has served to reinforce the theistic component in the prevailing spiritual climate.

     In summary:  whereas most religions emphasize the “transcendent” aspect of Ultimate Reality, namely the Supreme Being or God, Buddhism characteristically emphasizes the “immanent” aspect, namely the Supreme State or Nirvâna.  Nevertheless, Buddhism, in its total breadth, contains both aspects, the immanent and the transcendent, recognizing Ultimate Reality either as a Supreme State (Nirvâna) or as a Supreme Being (Dharmakâya).  In either case, the essential nature of Ultimate Reality remains the same:  it is absolute, infinite, and perfect.  Thus, in its conception of Ultimate Reality, Buddhism is essentially in accord with every other world religion.


*   *   *


Transcendence in Buddhism is also expressed in the following verse:

There is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unconditioned.  If that Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unconditioned were not, there could be no escape from that which is born, originated, created, conditioned.  But because there is That which is Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unconditioned, an escape from that which is born, originated, created, conditioned can be proclaimed.
 

Khuddaka-Nikâya, Udâna, 80 f.

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Muslims of Tibet

By Masood Butt
Tibetan Bulletin
January - February 1994

Tibet had pockets of Muslims entrenched within its borders although there is no documentary evidence on how Muslims first came to settle there. In fact, information on Tibetan Muslims in general itself is scarce. But the existence of Tibet appears to be known to the Muslim world from the earliest period of recorded history. Arab historians like Yaqut Hamawi, Ibn Khaldun and Tabari mention Tibet in their writings. In fact, Yaqut Hamawihas, in his book Muajumal Buldan (encyclopaedia of countries), refers to Tibet in three different ways Tabbat, Tibet and Tubbet.

During the reign of Umar bin Abdul Aziz (717-720) of the Persian Empire, it is believed that a delegation from Tibet and China requested him to send Islamic missionaries to their countries. Caliph Umar is said to have sent Salah bin Abdullah Hanafi to Tibet. The Abbasid rulers of Baghdad also maintained re1ations with Tibet in the eighth and the ninth centuries.

Kashmir and Eastern Turkestan were the nearest Islamic regions bordering Tibet. It is said that Muslim migrants from Kashmir and Ladakh areas first entered Tibet around 12th century. Gradually, marriages and social interaction led to an increase in the population until a sizable community came up around Lhasa, Tibet's capital. There was no large-scale conversion to Islam though. Thomas Arnold, in his book, The Preaching of Islam, published in the early part of this century says, "Islam has also been carried into Tibet proper by Kashmiri merchants. Settlements of such merchants are to be found in all the chief cities of Tibet: they marry Tibetan women, who often adopt the religion of their husbands..."

Tibetan Muslims trace their origin from immigrants from four main regions: China, Kashmir, Ladakh and Nepal. Islamic influence in Tibet also came from Persia and Turkestan.

Muslims are known as Khache among Tibetans. This appear to be because the earliest Muslim settlers to Tibet were from Kashmir which was known as Khache Yul to Tibetans.

The arrival of Muslims was followed by the construction of mosques in different parts of Tibet. There were four mosques in Lhasa, two in Shigatse and one in Tsethang. In recent years, one mosque in Lhasa has been renovated, with Tibetan Muslims from India sending religious inscriptions to it for use. Tibetan Muslims were mainly concentrated around the mosques that they constructed. These mosques were maintained well and were the centres of Muslim social life in Tibet.

Tibetan Muslims led a reasonably free life in a Buddhist environment. In fact, during the time of the fifth Dalai Lama, Tibetan Muslims received the following special privileges:

i) They were permitted to settle their affairs independently, according to the Shariat Laws. The government permitted the Muslim community to elect a five-man committee, known as 'Ponj' who looked after their interest. From among the Ponj, a leader - known as Mia to Muslims and Kbache Gopa - (Muslim headman) among non-Muslims - was elected. ii) Tibetan Muslims were free to set up commercial enterprises and were exempted from taxation. iii) Tibetan Muslims were also exempted from implementing the 'no meat rule' when such a restriction was imposed in Tibet every year during a holy Buddhist month. Muslims were also exempted from removing their caps to Buddhist priests during a period in a year when the priests held sway over the town. Muslims were also granted the Mina Dronbo (invitation to different communities) status to commemorate the assumption of spiritual and temporal authority by the fifth Dalai Lama.

In addition, Muslims had their own burial place. There were two cemeteries around Lhasa: one at Gyanda Linka about 12 km from Lhasa town and the other at Kygasha about 15 km away. A portion of Gyanda Linka was turned into a garden and this became the place where the Muslim community organised their major functions. Gyanda Linka is said to contain unmarked graves believed to be those of foreigners who came to preach Islam to Tibet. Kygasha was mainly used by Muslims of Chinese origin.

The above privileges were contained in a written document provided to the Tibetan Muslim community by the Tibetan government. These privileges were enjoyed until Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959.

Tibetan Muslims confined themselves mainly to trade and commerce. Hardly any of them indulged in fanning. As the community grew, Madrasas (primary schools) were set up in which children were taught about Islam, the Koran and the method of offering namaz (prayers). Urdu language was also part of the curriculum. There were two such Madrasas in Lhasa and one in Shigatse.

After finishing their stuthes in these Madrasas, students were sent to India to join Islamic institutes of higher learning such as Darul-U1oom in Deoband, Nadwatul-U1ema in Lucknow and Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi. The annual report of Darul-U1oom for the year 1875 mention the presence of two foreign students there: a Burmese and a Tibetan. Jamia Millia Islamia received its first batch of Tibetan students in 1945.

In those days, transportation within Tibet was a problem. Students were sent along with Muslim merchants making their annuals trip to India. This took months as they had walk or ride on yaks for most of the way. Therefore, once the students got admitted to institution in India, they usually did not return to Tibet until the completion of a stage of their education.

Quite a few Tibetan Muslims have successfully completed their stuthes in India, with many being well versed in Arabic, Urdu and Persian. The most famous among them could be Faidhullah who undertook the ambitious task of translating into Tibetan Gulestan and Boastan, Persian poetry of Sheik Sadi. Faidhullah's is well known among Tibetans for his popular book aphorism Khache Phalu (few words of advices from a Muslim). Even today, Tibetans continue to quote from his book, (an English translation of Khache Phaluh as been done by Dr. Dawa Norbu and published by the Library of Tibetan Works & Archives).

Tibetan Muslims were able to preserve their community's identity while at the same time absorbing their traditional Tibetan social and cultural traditions. They elected a Ponj committee to look after their affairs. The Tibetan government approved the formation of this committee and gave it a free hand to undertake its activities and to decide on matters concerning the Tibetan Muslim community. Tibetan Muslims have also made significant contribution to Tibetan culture, particularly in the field of music. Nangma, a popular c1assica1 music of Tibet, is said to have been brought to Tibet by Tibetan Muslims. In fact, the very term Nangma is believed to be a corruption of the Urdu word Naghma meaning song. These high-pitched tilting songs, developed in Tibet around the turn of the Century, were a craze in Lhasa with musical hits by Acha Izzat, Bhai Akbar-la and Oulam Mehdi on the lips of almost everyone.

After the Tibetan National Uprising of 1959 His Holiness the Dalai Lama went into-exile in India followed by a significant number of Tibetans. However, a majority of Tibetan Muslims, particularly those residing in Lhasa, could go out of Tibet only a year later. In between they had to suffer extortion, terrorism and cruelty under the hands of Chinese occupation forces, like their fellow Tibetans. During this critical period, Tibetan Muslims organised themselves. They approached the Indian mission in Lhasa to claim for Indian citizenship, referring to their Kashmiri ancestry, to escape Chinese tyranny. Mr. P.N.Kaul was the head of the Indian mission then. At that time, the head of the Ponj of Tibetan Muslims was Haji Habibullah Shamo. He was, however , under Chinese detention along with other leaders like Bhai Addul Gani-la;.Rapse Hamidullah, Abdua1 Ahad Hajj, Abdul Qadir Jami and HajiAbdul Gani Thapsha under various charges. While Bhai Abdu1 Gani-la was charged with the putting up of anti-Chinese posters, Rapse Hamidullah was arrested on account of his connection with a senior Tibetan official. The initial response of the Indian Government was lukewarm. It said only those whose Permanent domicile remained in the state of Jammu & Kashmir and who visited India from time to time, whose parents or one of whose grandparents were born in undivided India, are potential citizens of India", and it would , only accept them. But some time later, in later 1959, the Indian Government suddenly came out with the statement that all Tibetan Muslims were Indian nationals, and started distributing application forms for Indian nationality among them.

Chinese illtreatment of Tibetan Muslims continued Chinese authorities duped Tibetan Muslims into selling their property to them in return for the freedom to emigrate to any Muslim country. Seeing this as a possible way of saving their religion and culture, many Tibetan Muslims willingly parted with their property. But having acquired these property, 1ibetan Muslims were not allowed to emigrate. Instead, restrictions were imposed, and a social boycott declared. Nobody was allowed to sell food to Tibetan Muslims. Many old and weak Tibetan Muslims as well as children thed of starvation.

Those Tibetan Muslims who were able to cross over into India in the border towns of Kalimpong, Darjeeling and Gangtok in late 1959 gradually moved to Kashmir , their ancestral homeland from 1961 to 1964. They were accommodated in three huge buildings in Idd-Gah in Srinagar by the Indian Government. At that time, His Holiness the Dalai Lama had sent his Representative to inquire about the conditions of Tibetan Muslims.

During the first two decades of their life in exile, Tibetan Muslims attempted to rebuild and re-organise themselves. Lack of proper guidance and leadership proved to be an obstacle in their development. Also, housing in Idd Gah was inadequate to meet the requirements of a growing family. In the process, Tibetan Muslims began to scatter, emigrating to Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Nepal as well as moving to other parts of India in search of better opportunity .

His Holiness the Dalai Lama continued to keep in touch with the situation of Tibetan Muslims. Knowing their problems, His Holiness, during his visit to Srinagar in 1975, took up the matter with the Chief Minister of Jammu & Kashmir. He also encouraged the formation of the Tibetan Muslim Refugee Welfare Association. This Association began to chalk out projects for the economic and educational upliftment of Tibetan Muslims. With an initial financial assistance by His Holiness, coupled with assistance received, later from Tibet Fund, New York, a handicraft centre, a co-operative shop and a school were established. A group of young Tibetan Muslims were given training in Carpet making in Dharamsala.

The Association was able to get some land for resettlement. Saudi Arabia provided funds for the construction of 144 houses and a mosque in the new settlement. Construction was completed in 1985 and the houses distributed among the people. Not all people could be accommodated and some continued to reside in the old settlement.

A primary school had been started in 1975 in a rented building to provide modern as well as traditional education to Tibetan Muslim children. Although the school was shifted to a comparatively better place in the new settlement, it still faces problems: it is run on donations and does not have a separate compound. However, some students are being sent to Central Schools for Tibetans elsewhere in India. To date, 22 Tibetan Muslim children have been admitted to Central School for Tibetans in Shimla and Dalhousie in Himachal Pradesh state.

The Association has eight office bearers who look after the affairs of the community . There is a Tibetan Muslim Youth Association which plays an important role in social upliftment of the community . This youth association is in contact with the Tibetan Youth Congress. The Department of Health in Dharamsala has set up a primary health care centre to look after the medical needs of the settlers.

Nothing much is known of the present condition of Tibetan Muslims inside Tibet. According to one report there are around 3000 Tibetan Muslims and around 20,000 Chinese Muslims. Since the opening up of Tibet, some Tibetan Mus1ims outside Tibet have been able to visit the country while quite a few have also come out.

The total population of Tibetan Muslims outside Tibet is around 2000. Of them, 20 to 25 families live in Nepal, 20 in the Gulf countries and Turkey. Fifty families reside in Darjeeling-Kalimpong areas bordering Tibet in eastern India. Tibetan Muslims in Darjeeling, Kalimpong and Nepal have a joint Tibetan Muslim Welfare Association based in Kalimpong. Its present general secretary is Mr. Amanulla Chisti. During His Holiness the Dalai Lama's visit to Darjeeling in April l993. Tibetan Muslims there dressed in their traditional garments participated in a ceremony. There are around 1200 Tibetans in the new settlement in Srinagar consisting of 210 families.

Tibetans in general have suffered greatly under Chinese occupation. Tibetan Muslims have undergone great mental and physical strain on account of their peculiar situation. They continue to look upon their Muslim brethren throughout the world to support peaceful solution of the Tibetan problem so that the, too, like their Tibetan Buddhist brethren, can return to their homeland. When asked whether he would return to Tibet in the even of a solution, a young Tibetan Muslim responded, "It is better to live under the bridge in one's own homeland than be a refugee in an alien land."

Source: The Office of Tibet, the official agency of His Holiness the Dalai Lama in London

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Staunch Muslims, Tibetans at heart

From Pratibha Chauhan Tribune News Service December 05, 2000

DHARAMSALA: Mr Yusaf Naik, an official of the Tibetan Government-in-exile, is no different from his colleagues. He speaks fluent Tibetan, follows Tibetan customs, has complete faith in the leadership of the Dalai Lama and prays for the freedom of Tibet, but strangely enough he offers namaz, like any other Muslim, despite being a Tibetan.

Perhaps the most interesting aspect of his community is that while staunchly Islamic in their faith, the Kache, as the Tibetan Muslims are called, are thoroughly Tibetan in every other aspect. In a predominantly Buddhist nation like Tibet, they were able to preserve their identity and at the same time absorb Tibetan social and cultural customs.

It all started in the 12th century when a hardy band of 25 Kashmiri traders from Kashmir crossed over to Nepal and headed north to Tibet. They settled in different towns of Tibet like Lhasa, Shigaste and Tsetang, and married Tibetan women. Centuries later, the expanded Tibetan community approached the fifth Dalai Lama for a place for a mosque and a burial ground. It is said that the fifth Dalai Lama shot an arrow and decreed that the place where it fell could be owned by the Muslim community. The place came to be known as Gyangda Linka, the Park of the Distant Arrow.

Most Tibetan Muslims were traders, doing brisk business by bringing consumer goods from Calcutta and off-loading Tibetan wool in Kalimpong. In Tibet, they had shops selling consumer goods as well as specialising in the making of traditional Tibetan clothes and hats. The major items of trade were saffron, Indian silk and brocade from Kashmir and musk, gold dust and medicinal herbs from Tibet.

The Tibetan Muslims are Sunnis. It was common for a Kashmiri to marry a Tibetan girl, who had then to become a Muslim. In Tibet, they were considered Indian citizens, thus having the status of foreigners. In the case of a mixed marriage, the son was considered an Indian and a daughter a Tibetan.

While being pious Muslims, the community was well-integrated with the main Tibetan society and considered Tibet and anything Tibetan to be their own. They made up for their small size by the diversity and richness of their contribution to the development of Tibetan culture. From setting the trend in fashion in the high society of Lhasa to music, poetry, literature and business, the Tibetan Muslims' impact on the social and cultural life to Tibet was refreshing, tangible and invigorating.

As in the case of all other Tibetans, the Chinese occupation of Tibet affected the Tibetan Muslims. Rather than living under Chinese occupation, they opted for India, claiming Indian citizenship on the basis of their Kashmiri ancestry. They approached the Indian Consulate in Lhasa in 1960, returning to Srinagar, the land from where their ancestors went to Tibet nearly seven centuries ago.

Recalling the nostalgic moments spent with his family, back in Tibet, Mr Yusuf Naik, Joint Secretary in the Department of Health in the Tibetan Government, says: "For Tibetan Muslims, Id and Losar (Tibetan New Year) held equal significance, as we celebrated the festivals with the Tibetans". He goes on to add that though all Tibetan Muslims are Indian citizens today, they still cling to the memories of old Tibet, which gave them so much in terms of prosperity and tolerance.

Mr Yusuf Naik says the administration of the Tibetan Muslim community is carried out by the Punch Committee, elected by the community members and approved by the Tibetan Government. The word "Punch" has its origin in the Urdu and Persian languages. It is translated as "five", referring to the number of members on the panel. This committee incorporated resolutions based on the Islamic laws of conduct in its quest to preserve the Tibetan Muslim community's cultural heritage.

"My father, Abdul Ghani, was a member of the Punch Committee, which had the power to punish anybody found guilty of violating the laws of Islam, Shariat", says Mr Naik. It was after the holy month of Ramzan in 1959 that the Chinese began their tactics of colonisation. "My father, along with other Punch Committee members, was detained by the Chinese Government. We were all surprised by the extreme steps being taken by the Chinese, who arrested one of my relatives, Haji Habilluah, on a baseless charge of instigating the Tibetan Muslims to move to India".

Despite 17 long years of imprisonment, Abdul Ghani refused to change his statements. He was kept in Drapchi prison, where Tibetan Government officials were detained. By the time he was released from prison, he was touching 70 and suffering from serious ailments, which soon claimed his life.

Today, a large number of Tibetan Muslims are living in Srinagar, the place of their forefathers. More than 1,000 of them are living in Srinagar, while 700 are living in Kalimpong, near Darjeeling. A few families have settled in Nepal, Saudi Arabia and Turkey.

The Tibetan Government-in-exile, on its part, has been trying to extend all possible help to the Tibetan Muslims. In 1993, it offered three posts of Under-Secretary to the Tibetan Muslims. "Being in exile ourselves, there is little that we can do for the Tibetan Muslims, but the Indian Government has come to their rescue", says Mr Tashi Wangdi, Minister for Religion and Culture in the Tibetan Government. "Though they have come to India on the basis of their Indian citizenship, for all other purposes they continue to be a part of us as similar circumstances compelled all of us to leave our homeland", says Mr Tashi Wangdi.

The Dalai Lama has spoken to the Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister, Dr Farooq Abdullah, about the problems being faced by the Tibetan Muslims in Srinagar. He has also visited them on a number of occasions. Mr Wangdi says several proposals for the welfare of the Tibetan Muslims in Srinagar have been framed by his government.

Even today, the Tibetan Muslims continued to remain a distinct community retaining their Tibetan identity. It is not uncommon to find a number of Tibetan women who have converted to Islam after their marriage. In Tibet, there were schools where both Urdu and Tibetan were taught and Quran was studied

With a number of marriages and social interaction with the local residents in Srinagar, a lot of Kashmiri culture is being imbibed by Tibetan Muslims.

Source: The Office of Tibet, the official agency of His Holiness the Dalai Lama in London

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